Merge branch 'fmorgner/interrupt-handling' into develop-BA-FS26

45 files changed, 1450 insertions, 891 deletions

diff --git a/.gitlab-ci.yml b/.gitlab-ci.yml
index 2231956..0b933c4 100644
--- a/.gitlab-ci.yml
+++ b/.gitlab-ci.yml
@@ -6,10 +6,7 @@
 
 build:
   stage: build
-  image: registry.gitlab.ost.ch:45023/teachos/devcontainers/x86-64:15.2.0-4
-  before_script:
-    - apt update
-    - apt install -y clang-tidy cmake grub2-common grub-pc mtools ninja-build xorriso
+  image: registry.gitlab.ost.ch:45023/teachos/devcontainers/x86-64.ci:latest
   script:
     - cmake --preset $PLATFORM
     - cmake --build --preset $PLATFORM-$TYPE
@@ -20,14 +17,12 @@ build:
       - kernel.elf
       - kernel.sym
       - kernel.iso
+    expire_in: 1 week
   <<: *build_matrix
 
 bht:
   stage: build
-  image: registry.gitlab.ost.ch:45023/teachos/devcontainers/x86-64:15.2.0-4
-  before_script:
-    - apt update
-    - apt install -y build-essential cmake ninja-build lcov libcatch2-dev gcovr
+  image: registry.gitlab.ost.ch:45023/teachos/devcontainers/bht.ci:latest
   script:
     - cmake --preset bht
     - cmake --build --preset bht-dbg
@@ -38,7 +33,7 @@ bht:
     - gcovr --root . --cobertura-pretty --output coverage/cobertura-coverage.xml
   after_script:
     - echo "CoverageReport public URL - https://teachos.pages.ost.ch/-/kernel/-/jobs/$CI_JOB_ID/artifacts/coverage/index.html"
-  coverage: '/Total:\|\s*(\d+(\.\d+)?)\%/'
+  coverage: '/Total:\|\s*(\d+(?:\.\d+)?)\%/'
   artifacts:
     paths:
       - coverage.info
diff --git a/.lcovrc b/.lcovrc
index d19e80d..07da866 100644
--- a/.lcovrc
+++ b/.lcovrc
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 exclude = /usr/include/*
-exclude = build/_deps/*
+exclude = build/bht/_deps/*
 exclude = tests/*
 
 ignore_errors = unused,empty,inconsistent
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/CMakeLists.txt b/CMakeLists.txt
index febcf0e..6cc8a2f 100644
--- a/CMakeLists.txt
+++ b/CMakeLists.txt
@@ -18,15 +18,17 @@ include("GenerateBootableIso")
 
 include("FetchContent")
 
-FetchContent_Declare(
-  "Catch2"
-  URL "https://github.com/catchorg/Catch2/archive/refs/tags/v3.7.1.tar.gz"
-  URL_HASH "SHA256=c991b247a1a0d7bb9c39aa35faf0fe9e19764213f28ffba3109388e62ee0269c"
-  EXCLUDE_FROM_ALL
-  FIND_PACKAGE_ARGS
-)
+if (NOT CMAKE_CROSSCOMPILING)
+  FetchContent_Declare(
+    "Catch2"
+    URL "https://github.com/catchorg/Catch2/archive/refs/tags/v3.7.1.tar.gz"
+    URL_HASH "SHA256=c991b247a1a0d7bb9c39aa35faf0fe9e19764213f28ffba3109388e62ee0269c"
+    EXCLUDE_FROM_ALL
+    FIND_PACKAGE_ARGS
+  )
 
-FetchContent_MakeAvailable("Catch2")
+  FetchContent_MakeAvailable("Catch2")
+endif()
 
 #[============================================================================[
 # Global Build System Options
@@ -39,6 +41,10 @@ option(TEACHOS_GENERATE_DOCS "Generate documentation during build" ON)
 # Global Build System Configuration
 #]============================================================================]
 
+if(POLICY CMP0209)
+  cmake_policy(SET CMP0209 NEW)
+endif()
+
 set(CMAKE_RUNTIME_OUTPUT_DIRECTORY "${PROJECT_BINARY_DIR}/bin")
 set(CMAKE_ARCHIVE_OUTPUT_DIRECTORY "${PROJECT_BINARY_DIR}/lib")
 set(CMAKE_INTERPROCEDURAL_OPTIMIZATION YES)
diff --git a/arch/x86_64/CMakeLists.txt b/arch/x86_64/CMakeLists.txt
index 89d9bc0..4427e4c 100644
--- a/arch/x86_64/CMakeLists.txt
+++ b/arch/x86_64/CMakeLists.txt
@@ -15,6 +15,7 @@ target_sources("x86_64" PRIVATE
     "kapi/boot_modules.cpp"
     "kapi/cio.cpp"
     "kapi/cpu.cpp"
+    "kapi/interrupts.cpp"
     "kapi/memory.cpp"
     "kapi/system.cpp"
 
diff --git a/arch/x86_64/include/arch/cpu/interrupts.hpp b/arch/x86_64/include/arch/cpu/interrupts.hpp
index 8f156a4..b9adb6e 100644
--- a/arch/x86_64/include/arch/cpu/interrupts.hpp
+++ b/arch/x86_64/include/arch/cpu/interrupts.hpp
@@ -1,6 +1,8 @@
 #ifndef TEACHOS_X86_64_CPU_INTERRUPTS_HPP
 #define TEACHOS_X86_64_CPU_INTERRUPTS_HPP
 
+#include "kapi/memory.hpp"
+
 #include "arch/cpu/segment_selector.hpp"
 
 #include <array>
@@ -57,36 +59,36 @@ namespace arch::cpu
   {
     struct
     {
-      std::uint64_t r15;
-      std::uint64_t r14;
-      std::uint64_t r13;
-      std::uint64_t r12;
-      std::uint64_t r11;
-      std::uint64_t r10;
-      std::uint64_t r9;
-      std::uint64_t r8;
-      std::uint64_t rdi;
-      std::uint64_t rsi;
-      std::uint64_t rbp;
-      std::uint64_t rdx;
-      std::uint64_t rcx;
-      std::uint64_t rbx;
-      std::uint64_t rax;
+      std::uint64_t r15{};
+      std::uint64_t r14{};
+      std::uint64_t r13{};
+      std::uint64_t r12{};
+      std::uint64_t r11{};
+      std::uint64_t r10{};
+      std::uint64_t r9{};
+      std::uint64_t r8{};
+      std::uint64_t rdi{};
+      std::uint64_t rsi{};
+      std::uint64_t rbp{};
+      std::uint64_t rdx{};
+      std::uint64_t rcx{};
+      std::uint64_t rbx{};
+      std::uint64_t rax{};
     } handler_saved;
 
     struct
     {
-      std::uint64_t number;
-      std::uint64_t error_code;
+      std::uint64_t number{};
+      std::uint64_t error_code{};
     } interrupt;
 
     struct
     {
-      std::uint64_t rip;
-      std::uint64_t cs;
-      std::uint64_t rflags;
-      std::uint64_t rsp;
-      std::uint64_t ss;
+      kapi::memory::linear_address rip{};
+      std::uint64_t cs{};
+      std::uint64_t rflags{};
+      kapi::memory::linear_address rsp{};
+      std::uint64_t ss{};
     } cpu_saved;
   };
 
@@ -109,9 +111,6 @@ namespace arch::cpu
     auto static read() -> interrupt_descriptor_table_register;
   };
 
-  auto enable_interrupts() -> void;
-  auto disable_interrupts() -> void;
-
 }  // namespace arch::cpu
 
 #endif
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/arch/x86_64/kapi/cpu.cpp b/arch/x86_64/kapi/cpu.cpp
index 2a0f8f7..12edb0f 100644
--- a/arch/x86_64/kapi/cpu.cpp
+++ b/arch/x86_64/kapi/cpu.cpp
@@ -1,8 +1,27 @@
 #include "kapi/cpu.hpp"
 
+#include "kapi/system.hpp"
+
+#include "arch/cpu/initialization.hpp"
+
+#include <atomic>
+
 namespace kapi::cpu
 {
 
+  auto init() -> void
+  {
+    auto static constinit is_initialized = std::atomic_flag{};
+
+    if (is_initialized.test_and_set())
+    {
+      system::panic("[x86_64] CPU has already been initialized.");
+    }
+
+    arch::cpu::initialize_descriptors();
+    arch::cpu::initialize_legacy_interrupts();
+  }
+
   auto halt() -> void
   {
     asm volatile("1: hlt\njmp 1b");
diff --git a/arch/x86_64/kapi/interrupts.cpp b/arch/x86_64/kapi/interrupts.cpp
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..cf1defa
--- /dev/null
+++ b/arch/x86_64/kapi/interrupts.cpp
@@ -0,0 +1,16 @@
+#include "kapi/interrupts.hpp"
+
+namespace kapi::interrupts
+{
+
+  auto enable() -> void
+  {
+    asm volatile("sti");
+  }
+
+  auto disable() -> void
+  {
+    asm volatile("cli");
+  }
+
+}  // namespace kapi::interrupts
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/arch/x86_64/kapi/system.cpp b/arch/x86_64/kapi/system.cpp
index 301169f..09c7152 100644
--- a/arch/x86_64/kapi/system.cpp
+++ b/arch/x86_64/kapi/system.cpp
@@ -1,16 +1,8 @@
 #include "kapi/system.hpp"
 
-#include "arch/cpu/initialization.hpp"
-#include "arch/cpu/interrupts.hpp"
-
 namespace kapi::system
 {
 
-  auto memory_initialized() -> void
-  {
-    arch::cpu::initialize_descriptors();
-    arch::cpu::initialize_legacy_interrupts();
-    arch::cpu::enable_interrupts();
-  }
+  auto memory_initialized() -> void {}
 
 }  // namespace kapi::system
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/arch/x86_64/pre/include/arch/context_switching/interrupt_descriptor_table/gate_descriptor.hpp b/arch/x86_64/pre/include/arch/context_switching/interrupt_descriptor_table/gate_descriptor.hpp
deleted file mode 100644
index 07110c8..0000000
--- a/arch/x86_64/pre/include/arch/context_switching/interrupt_descriptor_table/gate_descriptor.hpp
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,69 +0,0 @@
-#ifndef TEACHOS_ARCH_X86_64_CONTEXT_SWITCHING_INTERRUPT_DESCRIPTOR_TABLE_GATE_DESCRIPTOR_HPP
-#define TEACHOS_ARCH_X86_64_CONTEXT_SWITCHING_INTERRUPT_DESCRIPTOR_TABLE_GATE_DESCRIPTOR_HPP
-
-#include "arch/context_switching/interrupt_descriptor_table/idt_flags.hpp"
-#include "arch/context_switching/interrupt_descriptor_table/ist_offset.hpp"
-#include "arch/context_switching/interrupt_descriptor_table/segment_selector.hpp"
-
-#include <bitset>
-#include <cstdint>
-
-namespace teachos::arch::context_switching::interrupt_descriptor_table
-{
-  __extension__ typedef __int128 int128_t;
-  __extension__ typedef unsigned __int128 uint128_t;
-
-  /**
-   * @brief Defines helper function for all states and the actual data the gate descriptor can have.
-   */
-  struct [[gnu::packed]] gate_descriptor
-  {
-    /**
-     * @brief Default Constructor.
-     */
-    gate_descriptor() = default;
-
-    /**
-     * @brief Constructor.
-     *
-     * @note Created gate descriptor copies the given bytes into these components ending with a 32 bit reserved
-     * field that has to be used, because the 64-bit gate descriptor needs to be big enough for two 32-bit gate
-     * descriptor.
-     * - 16 bit Segment Selector
-     * - 3 bit Interrupt Stack Table Offset
-     * - 8 bit Type and Flags
-     * - 64 bit Offset
-     *
-     * @param flags Copies the bits set from the given data into the individual components of a gate
-     * descriptor.
-     */
-    explicit gate_descriptor(uint128_t flags);
-
-    /**
-     * @brief Constructor.
-     *
-     * @param selector, ist, flags, offset Copies the bits set from the given data into the individual components of
-     * a gate descriptor.
-     */
-    gate_descriptor(segment_selector selector, ist_offset ist, idt_flags flags, uint64_t offset);
-
-    /**
-     * @brief Allows to compare the underlying bits of two instances.
-     *
-     * @param other Other instance that we want to compare with.
-     * @return Whether the underlying set bits of both types are the same.
-     */
-    auto operator==(gate_descriptor const & other) const -> bool = default;
-
-  private:
-    // The order in private variables starts for the first variable being the rightmost bit.
-    uint16_t _offset_1 = {};          ///< Lower 16 bits of handler function address (0 - 15)
-    segment_selector _selector = {};  ///< Segment selector (16 - 31)
-    ist_offset _ist = {};             ///< Interrupt Stack Table offset (32 - 39)
-    idt_flags _flags = {};            ///< Gate Type and Flags (40 - 47)
-    uint64_t _offset_2 : 48 = {};     ///< Upper 48 bits of handler function address (48 - 95)
-    uint32_t : 32;                    ///< Reserved field used to ensure this struct is 128 bits big (96 - 127)
-  };
-}  // namespace teachos::arch::context_switching::interrupt_descriptor_table
-
-#endif  // TEACHOS_ARCH_X86_64_CONTEXT_SWITCHING_INTERRUPT_DESCRIPTOR_TABLE_GATE_DESCRIPTOR_HPP
diff --git a/arch/x86_64/pre/include/arch/context_switching/interrupt_descriptor_table/idt_flags.hpp b/arch/x86_64/pre/include/arch/context_switching/interrupt_descriptor_table/idt_flags.hpp
deleted file mode 100644
index 5104c36..0000000
--- a/arch/x86_64/pre/include/arch/context_switching/interrupt_descriptor_table/idt_flags.hpp
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,81 +0,0 @@
-
-#ifndef TEACHOS_ARCH_X86_64_CONTEXT_SWITCHING_INTERRUPT_DESCRIPTOR_TABLE_IDT_FLAGS_HPP
-#define TEACHOS_ARCH_X86_64_CONTEXT_SWITCHING_INTERRUPT_DESCRIPTOR_TABLE_IDT_FLAGS_HPP
-
-#include <bitset>
-#include <cstdint>
-
-namespace teachos::arch::context_switching::interrupt_descriptor_table
-{
-  /**
-   * @brief Defines helper function for all states that the access byte field of a segment descriptor can
-   * have.
-   */
-  struct [[gnu::packed]] idt_flags
-  {
-    /**
-     * @brief Possible set bits in our underlying bits and the meaning when they are set.
-     */
-    enum bitset : uint8_t
-    {
-      INTERRUPT_GATE = 0b01110,  ///< The actual type of gate segment is a interrupt gate.
-      TRAP_GATE = 0b01111,       ///< The actual type of gate segment is a trap gate.
-      DESCRIPTOR_LEVEL_KERNEL =
-          0U << 5U,  ///< Highest privileged level used by the kernel to allow for full access of resources.
-      DESCRIPTOR_LEVEL_ADMIN =
-          1U << 5U,  ///< Restricts access to own application and thoose of lower privilege. Should only be used if more
-                     ///< than two privilege levels are required, otherwise using Level 3 and Level 0 is recommended.
-      DESCRIPTOR_LEVEL_PRIVILEGED_USER =
-          2U << 5U,  ///< Restricts access to own application and thoose of lower privilege. Should only be used if more
-                     ///< than two privilege levels are required, otherwise using Level 3 and Level 0 is recommended.
-      DESCRIPTOR_LEVEL_USER = 3U << 5U,  ///< Restricts access to only application and their specific memory.
-      PRESENT = 1U << 7U,                ///< Present bit; Allows an entry to refer to a valid segment.
-                                         ///< Must be set (1) for any valid segment.
-    };
-
-    /**
-     * @brief Default Constructor.
-     */
-    idt_flags() = default;
-
-    /**
-     * @brief Constructor.
-     *
-     * @param flags Allows to set flags for the access byte field using the unscoped enum contained in this class, used
-     * to allow for direct integer conversion. This value is saved and can later be used to check whether certain flags
-     * are enabled or not using contains_flags method.
-     */
-    idt_flags(uint8_t flags);
-
-    /**
-     * @brief Checks if the given std::bitset is a subset or equivalent to the underlying data.
-     *
-     * @note Meaning that all bits that are set in the given std::bitset also have to be set in the underlyng
-     * data. Any additional bits that are set are not relevant.
-     *
-     * @param other Flags that we want to compare against and check if the underlying data has the same bits set.
-     * @return Whether the given flags are a subset or equivalent with the underlying data.
-     */
-    auto contains_flags(std::bitset<8U> other) const -> bool;
-
-    /**
-     * @brief Allows to compare the underlying bits of two instances.
-     *
-     * @param other Other instance that we want to compare with.
-     * @return Whether the underlying set bits of both types are the same.
-     */
-    auto operator==(idt_flags const & other) const -> bool = default;
-
-    /**
-     * @brief Combines all bits that are set in the std::bitset flags with the bits already set in the underlying data.
-     *
-     * @param other Additional bits that should be set.
-     */
-    auto operator|=(std::bitset<8U> other) -> void;
-
-  private:
-    uint8_t _flags = {};  ///< Underlying bits used to read the flags from.
-  };
-}  // namespace teachos::arch::context_switching::interrupt_descriptor_table
-
-#endif  // TEACHOS_ARCH_X86_64_CONTEXT_SWITCHING_INTERRUPT_DESCRIPTOR_TABLE_IDT_FLAGS_HPP
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/arch/x86_64/pre/include/arch/context_switching/interrupt_descriptor_table/interrupt_descriptor_table.hpp b/arch/x86_64/pre/include/arch/context_switching/interrupt_descriptor_table/interrupt_descriptor_table.hpp
deleted file mode 100644
index b388e0e..0000000
--- a/arch/x86_64/pre/include/arch/context_switching/interrupt_descriptor_table/interrupt_descriptor_table.hpp
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,24 +0,0 @@
-#ifndef TEACHOS_ARCH_X86_64_CONTEXT_SWITCHING_INTERRUPT_DESCRIPTOR_TABLE_INTERRUPT_DESCRIPTOR_TABLE_HPP
-#define TEACHOS_ARCH_X86_64_CONTEXT_SWITCHING_INTERRUPT_DESCRIPTOR_TABLE_INTERRUPT_DESCRIPTOR_TABLE_HPP
-
-#include "arch/context_switching/interrupt_descriptor_table/interrupt_descriptor_table_pointer.hpp"
-
-namespace teachos::arch::context_switching::interrupt_descriptor_table
-{
-  /**
-   * @brief Updates the IDTR with the created interrupt descriptor table. If it has not been created yet this
-   * method will create it.
-   */
-  auto update_interrupt_descriptor_table_register() -> void;
-
-  /**
-   * @brief Creates the interrupt descriptor table, with the minimum required configuration. If this method is called
-   * more than once, the previously created instance is returned instead.
-   *
-   * @return Reference to the created interrupt_descriptor_table.
-   */
-  auto get_or_create_interrupt_descriptor_table() -> interrupt_descriptor_table &;
-
-}  // namespace teachos::arch::context_switching::interrupt_descriptor_table
-
-#endif  // TEACHOS_ARCH_X86_64_CONTEXT_SWITCHING_INTERRUPT_DESCRIPTOR_TABLE_INTERRUPT_DESCRIPTOR_TABLE_HPP
diff --git a/arch/x86_64/pre/include/arch/context_switching/interrupt_descriptor_table/interrupt_descriptor_table_pointer.hpp b/arch/x86_64/pre/include/arch/context_switching/interrupt_descriptor_table/interrupt_descriptor_table_pointer.hpp
deleted file mode 100644
index 7fe933b..0000000
--- a/arch/x86_64/pre/include/arch/context_switching/interrupt_descriptor_table/interrupt_descriptor_table_pointer.hpp
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,40 +0,0 @@
-#ifndef TEACHOS_ARCH_X86_64_CONTEXT_SWITCHING_INTERRUPT_DESCRIPTOR_TABLE_INTERRUPT_DESCRIPTOR_TABLE_POINTER_HPP
-#define TEACHOS_ARCH_X86_64_CONTEXT_SWITCHING_INTERRUPT_DESCRIPTOR_TABLE_INTERRUPT_DESCRIPTOR_TABLE_POINTER_HPP
-
-#include "arch/context_switching/interrupt_descriptor_table/gate_descriptor.hpp"
-#include "arch/stl/vector.hpp"
-
-namespace teachos::arch::context_switching::interrupt_descriptor_table
-{
-  using interrupt_descriptor_table = stl::vector<gate_descriptor>;
-
-  /**
-   * @brief Represents a pointer to the Interrupt Descriptor Table (IDT).
-   *
-   * This structure is used to store the base address and length of the IDT.
-   */
-  struct [[gnu::packed]] interrupt_descriptor_table_pointer
-  {
-    /**
-     * @brief Default constructor.
-     */
-    interrupt_descriptor_table_pointer() = default;
-
-    /**
-     * @brief Constructor.
-     */
-    interrupt_descriptor_table_pointer(uint16_t table_length, gate_descriptor * address);
-
-    /**
-     * @brief Defaulted three-way comparsion operator.
-     */
-    auto operator<=>(interrupt_descriptor_table_pointer const & other) const -> std::strong_ordering = default;
-
-  private:
-    uint16_t table_length = {};      ///< The amount of segment descriptor entries in the global descriptor table - 1.
-    gate_descriptor * address = {};  ///< Non-owning pointer to the IDT base address.
-  };
-
-}  // namespace teachos::arch::context_switching::interrupt_descriptor_table
-
-#endif  // TEACHOS_ARCH_X86_64_CONTEXT_SWITCHING_INTERRUPT_DESCRIPTOR_TABLE_INTERRUPT_DESCRIPTOR_TABLE_POINTER_HPP
diff --git a/arch/x86_64/pre/include/arch/context_switching/interrupt_descriptor_table/ist_offset.hpp b/arch/x86_64/pre/include/arch/context_switching/interrupt_descriptor_table/ist_offset.hpp
deleted file mode 100644
index e45bcf4..0000000
--- a/arch/x86_64/pre/include/arch/context_switching/interrupt_descriptor_table/ist_offset.hpp
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,45 +0,0 @@
-#ifndef TEACHOS_ARCH_X86_64_CONTEXT_SWITCHING_INTERRUPT_DESCRIPTOR_TABLE_IST_OFFSET_HPP
-#define TEACHOS_ARCH_X86_64_CONTEXT_SWITCHING_INTERRUPT_DESCRIPTOR_TABLE_IST_OFFSET_HPP
-
-#include <bitset>
-#include <cstdint>
-
-namespace teachos::arch::context_switching::interrupt_descriptor_table
-{
-  /**
-   * @brief Defines helper function for all states that the interrupt stack table offset field of a gate descriptor can
-   * have. Is automatically increased to one byte in size, to include the following 5 reserved bits in the gate
-   * descriptor.
-   */
-  struct [[gnu::packed]] ist_offset
-  {
-    /**
-     * @brief Default Constructor.
-     */
-    ist_offset() = default;
-
-    /**
-     * @brief Constructor.
-     *
-     * @param offset Offset into the interrupt stack table. A value of of 0 means we do not switch stacks, whereas 1 - 7
-     * mean we switch to the n-th stack in the Interrupt Stack Table, contained in the TSS if the gate descriptor that
-     * contains this field is called.
-     */
-    ist_offset(uint8_t offset);
-
-    /**
-     * @brief Allows to compare the underlying set bits of two instances.
-     *
-     * @param other Other instance that we want to compare with.
-     * @return Whether the underlying set bits of both types are the same.
-     */
-    auto operator==(ist_offset const & other) const -> bool = default;
-
-  private:
-    uint8_t _ist : 3 = {};  ///< Offset into the interrupt stack table. A value of of 0 means we do not switch stacks,
-                            ///< whereas 1 - 7 mean we switch to the n-th stack in the Interrupt Stack Table, contained
-                            ///< in the TSS if the gate descriptor that contains this field is called.
-  };
-}  // namespace teachos::arch::context_switching::interrupt_descriptor_table
-
-#endif  // TEACHOS_ARCH_X86_64_CONTEXT_SWITCHING_INTERRUPT_DESCRIPTOR_TABLE_IST_OFFSET_HPP
diff --git a/arch/x86_64/pre/include/arch/context_switching/interrupt_descriptor_table/segment_selector.hpp b/arch/x86_64/pre/include/arch/context_switching/interrupt_descriptor_table/segment_selector.hpp
deleted file mode 100644
index ea8c145..0000000
--- a/arch/x86_64/pre/include/arch/context_switching/interrupt_descriptor_table/segment_selector.hpp
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,105 +0,0 @@
-#ifndef TEACHOS_ARCH_X86_64_CONTEXT_SWITCHING_INTERRUPT_DESCRIPTOR_TABLE_SEGMENT_SELECTOR_HPP
-#define TEACHOS_ARCH_X86_64_CONTEXT_SWITCHING_INTERRUPT_DESCRIPTOR_TABLE_SEGMENT_SELECTOR_HPP
-
-#include <bitset>
-#include <cstdint>
-
-namespace teachos::arch::context_switching::interrupt_descriptor_table
-{
-  /**
-   * @brief Represents a segment selector in the x86_64 architecture, which points to a valid code segment in the global
-   * descriptor table.
-   *
-   * A segment selector is a 16-bit identifier used to select a segment descriptor
-   * from the Global Descriptor Table (GDT) or the Local Descriptor Table (LDT).
-   * It contains an index, a table indicator (TI), and a requested privilege level (RPL).
-   */
-  struct [[gnu::packed]] segment_selector
-  {
-    /**
-     * @brief Possible set bits in our underlying bits and the meaning when they are set.
-     */
-    enum bitset : uint8_t
-    {
-      REQUEST_LEVEL_KERNEL =
-          0U << 0U,  ///< Highest privileged level used by the kernel to allow for full access of resources.
-      REQUEST_LEVEL_ADMIN =
-          1U << 0U,  ///< Restricts access to own application and thoose of lower privilege. Should only be used if more
-                     ///< than two privilege levels are required, otherwise using Level 3 and Level 0 is recommended.
-      REQUEST_LEVEL_PRIVILEGED_USER =
-          2U << 0U,  ///< Restricts access to own application and thoose of lower privilege. Should only be used if more
-                     ///< than two privilege levels are required, otherwise using Level 3 and Level 0 is recommended.
-      REQUEST_LEVEL_USER = 3U << 0U,      ///< Restricts access to only application and their specific memory.
-      LOCAL_DESCRIPTOR_TABLE = 1U << 2U,  ///< Wheter the index referes to an entry in the local or global descriptor
-                                          ///< table. If enabled the index points to a local descriptor table, if it is
-                                          ///< cleared it referes to a global descriptor table instead.
-    };
-
-    /**
-     * @brief Default constructor.
-     */
-    segment_selector() = default;
-
-    /**
-     * @brief Constructor.
-     *
-     * @param index Index into the local or global descriptor table. Processor multiplies the index value by 8 (number
-     * of bytes in 32-bit segment descriptor) and adds the result to the base GDT or LDT address.
-     * @param flags Allows to set flags for the flags field using the unscoped enum contained in this class, used to
-     * allow for direct integer conversion.
-     */
-    constexpr segment_selector(uint16_t index, uint8_t flags)
-        : _flags(flags)
-        , _index(index)
-    {
-      // Nothing to do.
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * @brief Checks if the given std::bitset is a subset or equivalent to the underlying data.
-     *
-     * @note Meaning that all bits that are set in the given std::bitset also have to be set in the underlyng
-     * data. Any additional bits that are set are not relevant.
-     *
-     * @param other Flags that we want to compare against and check if the underlying data has the same bits set.
-     * @return Whether the given flags are a subset or equivalent with the underlying data.
-     */
-    auto contains_flags(std::bitset<3U> other) const -> bool;
-
-    /**
-     * @brief Gets the index into the global descriptor table or the local descriptor table this segment selector is
-     * pointing too.
-     *
-     * @return Underlying value of the index field, bit 3 - 16.
-     */
-    [[gnu::section(".user_text")]]
-    auto get_index() const -> uint16_t;
-
-    /**
-     * @brief Defaulted three-way comparsion operator.
-     */
-    auto operator<=>(segment_selector const & other) const -> std::strong_ordering = default;
-
-    /**
-     * @brief Combines all bits that are set in the std::bitset flags with the bits already set in the underlying data.
-     *
-     * @param other Additional bits that should be set.
-     */
-    auto operator|=(std::bitset<3U> other) -> void;
-
-    /**
-     * @brief Cast the underlying data into a combined 16-bit form, that contains all data.
-     *
-     * @return Underlying value combined into it's full size.
-     */
-    operator uint16_t() const;
-
-  private:
-    uint8_t _flags : 3 = {};  ///< Underlying bits used to read the flags from.
-    uint16_t _index
-        : 13 = {};  ///< Index into the local or global descriptor table. Processor multiplies the index value by 16
-                    ///< (number of bytes in segment descriptor) and adds the result to the base address.
-  };
-}  // namespace teachos::arch::context_switching::interrupt_descriptor_table
-
-#endif  // TEACHOS_ARCH_X86_64_CONTEXT_SWITCHING_INTERRUPT_DESCRIPTOR_TABLE_SEGMENT_SELECTOR_HPP
diff --git a/arch/x86_64/pre/include/arch/interrupt_handling/generic_interrupt_handler.hpp b/arch/x86_64/pre/include/arch/interrupt_handling/generic_interrupt_handler.hpp
deleted file mode 100644
index 15b35c1..0000000
--- a/arch/x86_64/pre/include/arch/interrupt_handling/generic_interrupt_handler.hpp
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,34 +0,0 @@
-#ifndef TEACHOS_ARCH_X86_64_INTERRUPT_HANDLING_GENERIC_INTERRUPT_HANDLER_HPP
-#define TEACHOS_ARCH_X86_64_INTERRUPT_HANDLING_GENERIC_INTERRUPT_HANDLER_HPP
-
-#include <cstdint>
-
-namespace teachos::arch::interrupt_handling
-{
-  /**
-   * @brief Represents the CPU state during an interrupt.
-   *
-   * Some interrupts push an error code, while others do not. The full list
-   * of which vector number contains the error code can be found here: https://wiki.osdev.org/Exceptions
-   */
-  struct [[gnu::packed]] interrupt_frame
-  {
-    // uint64_t error_code;  ///< Error code only pushed by some exceptions, therefore it is commented out.
-    uint64_t ip;     ///< Instruction pointer at the time of the interrupt.
-    uint64_t cs;     ///< Code segment selector indicating privilege level.
-    uint64_t flags;  ///< CPU flags (RFLAGS) storing processor state.
-    uint64_t sp;     ///< Stack pointer at the time of the interrupt.
-    uint64_t ss;     ///< Stack segment selector, usually unused in 64-bit mode.
-  };
-
-  /**
-   * @brief Generic interrupt handler function.
-   *
-   * @param frame Pointer to the interrupt frame containing CPU state.
-   */
-  [[gnu::interrupt]]
-  auto generic_interrupt_handler(interrupt_frame * frame) -> void;
-
-}  // namespace teachos::arch::interrupt_handling
-
-#endif  // TEACHOS_ARCH_X86_64_INTERRUPT_HANDLING_GENERIC_INTERRUPT_HANDLER_HPP
diff --git a/arch/x86_64/pre/include/arch/kernel/cpu/call.hpp b/arch/x86_64/pre/include/arch/kernel/cpu/call.hpp
deleted file mode 100644
index 3c43304..0000000
--- a/arch/x86_64/pre/include/arch/kernel/cpu/call.hpp
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,30 +0,0 @@
-#ifndef TEACHOS_ARCH_X86_64_KERNEL_CPU_JMP_HPP
-#define TEACHOS_ARCH_X86_64_KERNEL_CPU_JMP_HPP
-
-#include "arch/context_switching/interrupt_descriptor_table/segment_selector.hpp"
-
-#include <cstdint>
-
-namespace teachos::arch::kernel::cpu
-{
-  /**
-   * @brief Far Pointer. Address to function located in another code segment.
-   */
-  struct far_pointer
-  {
-    void (*function)();  ///< Address of the function we want to call. (0-63)
-    context_switching::interrupt_descriptor_table::segment_selector
-        selector;  ///< Segment selector pointing to the GDT entry we want to load into register CS. (64-79)
-  };
-
-  /**
-   * @brief Far call - A call to an instruction located in a different segment than the current code segment but at the
-   * same privilege level.
-   *
-   * @param pointer 64-bit operand size far pointer that we want to call.
-   */
-  auto call(far_pointer pointer) -> void;
-
-}  // namespace teachos::arch::kernel::cpu
-
-#endif  // TEACHOS_ARCH_X86_64_KERNEL_CPU_JMP_HPP
diff --git a/arch/x86_64/pre/include/arch/kernel/cpu/idtr.hpp b/arch/x86_64/pre/include/arch/kernel/cpu/idtr.hpp
deleted file mode 100644
index cb800d0..0000000
--- a/arch/x86_64/pre/include/arch/kernel/cpu/idtr.hpp
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,27 +0,0 @@
-#ifndef TEACHOS_ARCH_X86_64_KERNEL_CPU_IDTR_HPP
-#define TEACHOS_ARCH_X86_64_KERNEL_CPU_IDTR_HPP
-
-#include "arch/context_switching/interrupt_descriptor_table/interrupt_descriptor_table_pointer.hpp"
-
-#include <bitset>
-#include <cstdint>
-
-namespace teachos::arch::kernel::cpu
-{
-  /**
-   * @brief Returns the value in the IDTR register.
-   *
-   * @return Value of IDTR register.
-   */
-  auto store_interrupt_descriptor_table()
-      -> context_switching::interrupt_descriptor_table::interrupt_descriptor_table_pointer;
-
-  /**
-   * @brief Loads the interrupt_descriptor_table_pointer into the interrupt descriptor table register (IDTR).
-   */
-  auto load_interrupt_descriptor_table(
-      context_switching::interrupt_descriptor_table::interrupt_descriptor_table_pointer const & idt_pointer) -> void;
-
-}  // namespace teachos::arch::kernel::cpu
-
-#endif  // TEACHOS_ARCH_X86_64_KERNEL_CPU_IDTR_HPP
diff --git a/arch/x86_64/pre/include/arch/kernel/cpu/if.hpp b/arch/x86_64/pre/include/arch/kernel/cpu/if.hpp
deleted file mode 100644
index 48707dc..0000000
--- a/arch/x86_64/pre/include/arch/kernel/cpu/if.hpp
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,21 +0,0 @@
-#ifndef TEACHOS_ARCH_X86_64_KERNEL_CPU_IF_HPP
-#define TEACHOS_ARCH_X86_64_KERNEL_CPU_IF_HPP
-
-namespace teachos::arch::kernel::cpu
-{
-  /**
-   * @brief Sets the interrupt flag (IF) in the EFLAGS register.
-   * This allows the processor to respond to maskable hardware interrupts.
-   */
-  auto set_interrupt_flag() -> void;
-
-  /**
-   * @brief Clears the interrupt flag (IF) in the EFLAGS register.
-   * This will stop the processor to respond to maskable hardware interrupts and needs to be done before changing the
-   * Interrupt Descriptor Table with lidt.
-   */
-  auto clear_interrupt_flag() -> void;
-
-}  // namespace teachos::arch::kernel::cpu
-
-#endif  // TEACHOS_ARCH_X86_64_KERNEL_CPU_IF_HPP
diff --git a/arch/x86_64/pre/include/arch/kernel/cpu/msr.hpp b/arch/x86_64/pre/include/arch/kernel/cpu/msr.hpp
deleted file mode 100644
index 99d6378..0000000
--- a/arch/x86_64/pre/include/arch/kernel/cpu/msr.hpp
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,64 +0,0 @@
-#ifndef TEACHOS_ARCH_X86_64_KERNEL_CPU_NXE_HPP
-#define TEACHOS_ARCH_X86_64_KERNEL_CPU_NXE_HPP
-
-#include <bitset>
-#include <cstdint>
-
-namespace teachos::arch::kernel::cpu
-{
-  /**
-   * @brief Important flags that can be writen into the Extended Feature Enable Register (EFER).
-   *
-   * @note EFER is a model-specific register allowing to configure CPU extensions. Only the most important extensions
-   * are listed below, the rest are excluded for brevity. See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_register#EFER for
-   * more information.
-   */
-  enum class efer_flags : uint64_t
-  {
-    SCE = 1UL << 0UL,     ///< System Call Extensions.
-    LME = 1UL << 8UL,     ///< Long Mode Enabled.
-    LMA = 1UL << 10UL,    ///< Long Mode Active.
-    NXE = 1UL << 11UL,    ///< No-Execute Enable.
-    SVME = 1UL << 12UL,   ///< Secure Virtual Machine Enable.
-    LMSLE = 1UL << 13UL,  ///< Long Mode Segment Limit Enable.
-    FFXSR = 1UL << 14UL,  ///< Fast FXSAVE/FXSTOR.
-    TCE = 1UL << 15UL,    ///< Translation Cache Extension.
-  };
-
-  /**
-   * @brief Reads a 64-bit from the Model-Specific Register (MSR).
-   *
-   * @note This function reads the value of an MSR specified by the given address. It combines the lower and upper
-   * 32-bits of the MSR value read using the 'rdmsr' instruction and returns it as a 64-bit unsigned integer.
-   *
-   * @param msr The address of the MSR to read.
-   * @return The 64-bit value read from the MSR.
-   */
-  auto read_msr(uint32_t msr) -> uint64_t;
-
-  /**
-   * @brief Writes a 64-bit value to a Model-Specific Register (MSR).
-   *
-   * @note This function writes a 64-bit value to the MSR specified by the given address.
-   * It splits the 64-bit value into two 32-bit parts and writes them using the
-   * `wrmsr` instruction.
-   *
-   * @param msr The address of the MSR to write to.
-   * @param new_value The 64-bit value to write to the MSR.
-   */
-  auto write_msr(uint32_t msr, uint64_t new_value) -> void;
-
-  /**
-   * @brief Sets a specific bit in the Extended Feature Enable Register (EFER), which is a Model-Specific Register
-   * (MSR).
-   *
-   * @note This function reads the current value of the EFER register, ORs the specified
-   * bit with the current value, and writes the updated value back to the EFER register.
-   *
-   * @param flag The flag to set in the EFER register.
-   */
-  auto set_efer_bit(efer_flags flag) -> void;
-
-}  // namespace teachos::arch::kernel::cpu
-
-#endif  // TEACHOS_ARCH_X86_64_KERNEL_CPU_NXE_HPP
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/arch/x86_64/pre/include/arch/kernel/cpu/tr.hpp b/arch/x86_64/pre/include/arch/kernel/cpu/tr.hpp
deleted file mode 100644
index 7c856f1..0000000
--- a/arch/x86_64/pre/include/arch/kernel/cpu/tr.hpp
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,24 +0,0 @@
-#ifndef TEACHOS_ARCH_X86_64_KERNEL_CPU_TR_HPP
-#define TEACHOS_ARCH_X86_64_KERNEL_CPU_TR_HPP
-
-#include <bitset>
-#include <cstdint>
-
-namespace teachos::arch::kernel::cpu
-{
-
-  /**
-   * @brief Returns the value in the LTR register.
-   *
-   * @return Value of LTR register.
-   */
-  auto store_task_register() -> uint16_t;
-
-  /**
-   * @brief Loads the gdt offset to the tss segment descriptor into the task register (TR).
-   */
-  auto load_task_register(uint16_t gdt_offset) -> void;
-
-}  // namespace teachos::arch::kernel::cpu
-
-#endif  // TEACHOS_ARCH_X86_64_KERNEL_CPU_TR_HPP
diff --git a/arch/x86_64/pre/src/context_switching/interrupt_descriptor_table/gate_descriptor.cpp b/arch/x86_64/pre/src/context_switching/interrupt_descriptor_table/gate_descriptor.cpp
deleted file mode 100644
index 28f289c..0000000
--- a/arch/x86_64/pre/src/context_switching/interrupt_descriptor_table/gate_descriptor.cpp
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,24 +0,0 @@
-#include "arch/context_switching/interrupt_descriptor_table/gate_descriptor.hpp"
-
-namespace teachos::arch::context_switching::interrupt_descriptor_table
-{
-  gate_descriptor::gate_descriptor(uint128_t flags)
-      : _offset_1(flags)
-      , _selector(flags >> 19U, flags >> 16U)
-      , _ist(flags >> 32U)
-      , _flags(flags >> 40U)
-      , _offset_2(flags >> 48U)
-  {
-    // Nothing to do.
-  }
-
-  gate_descriptor::gate_descriptor(segment_selector selector, ist_offset ist, idt_flags flags, uint64_t offset)
-      : _offset_1(offset)
-      , _selector(selector)
-      , _ist(ist)
-      , _flags(flags)
-      , _offset_2(offset >> 16U)
-  {
-    // Nothing to do.
-  }
-}  // namespace teachos::arch::context_switching::interrupt_descriptor_table
diff --git a/arch/x86_64/pre/src/context_switching/interrupt_descriptor_table/idt_flags.cpp b/arch/x86_64/pre/src/context_switching/interrupt_descriptor_table/idt_flags.cpp
deleted file mode 100644
index f3b9d5e..0000000
--- a/arch/x86_64/pre/src/context_switching/interrupt_descriptor_table/idt_flags.cpp
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,20 +0,0 @@
-#include "arch/context_switching/interrupt_descriptor_table/idt_flags.hpp"
-
-namespace teachos::arch::context_switching::interrupt_descriptor_table
-{
-  idt_flags::idt_flags(uint8_t flags)
-      : _flags(flags)
-  {
-    // Nothing to do.
-  }
-
-  auto idt_flags::contains_flags(std::bitset<8U> other) const -> bool
-  {
-    return (std::bitset<8U>{_flags} & other) == other;
-  }
-
-  auto idt_flags::operator|=(std::bitset<8U> other) -> void
-  {
-    _flags |= other.to_ulong();
-  }
-}  // namespace teachos::arch::context_switching::interrupt_descriptor_table
diff --git a/arch/x86_64/pre/src/context_switching/interrupt_descriptor_table/interrupt_descriptor_table.cpp b/arch/x86_64/pre/src/context_switching/interrupt_descriptor_table/interrupt_descriptor_table.cpp
deleted file mode 100644
index 8640385..0000000
--- a/arch/x86_64/pre/src/context_switching/interrupt_descriptor_table/interrupt_descriptor_table.cpp
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,53 +0,0 @@
-#include "arch/context_switching/interrupt_descriptor_table/interrupt_descriptor_table.hpp"
-
-#include "arch/exception_handling/assert.hpp"
-#include "arch/interrupt_handling/generic_interrupt_handler.hpp"
-#include "arch/kernel/cpu/idtr.hpp"
-
-namespace teachos::arch::context_switching::interrupt_descriptor_table
-{
-  namespace
-  {
-    /// @brief Amount of currently reserved interrupt indicies.
-    /// See https://wiki.osdev.org/Interrupt_Descriptor_Table#IDT_items for more information.
-    constexpr uint16_t RESERVED_INTERRUPT_COUNT = 256U;
-
-    auto create_interrupt_descriptor_table() -> interrupt_descriptor_table
-    {
-      interrupt_descriptor_table interrupt_descriptor_table{RESERVED_INTERRUPT_COUNT};
-
-      uint64_t offset = reinterpret_cast<uint64_t>(interrupt_handling::generic_interrupt_handler);
-      segment_selector selector{1U, segment_selector::REQUEST_LEVEL_KERNEL};
-      ist_offset ist{0U};
-      idt_flags flags{idt_flags::DESCRIPTOR_LEVEL_KERNEL | idt_flags::INTERRUPT_GATE | idt_flags::PRESENT};
-
-      for (std::size_t i = 0; i < interrupt_descriptor_table.size(); i++)
-      {
-        interrupt_descriptor_table.at(i) = {selector, ist, flags, offset};
-      }
-
-      return interrupt_descriptor_table;
-    }
-  }  // namespace
-
-  auto get_or_create_interrupt_descriptor_table() -> interrupt_descriptor_table &
-  {
-    // Interrupt Descriptor Table needs to be kept alive
-    interrupt_descriptor_table static idt = create_interrupt_descriptor_table();
-    return idt;
-  }
-
-  auto update_interrupt_descriptor_table_register() -> void
-  {
-    decltype(auto) idt = get_or_create_interrupt_descriptor_table();
-
-    interrupt_descriptor_table_pointer idt_pointer{static_cast<uint16_t>((idt.size() * sizeof(gate_descriptor)) - 1),
-                                                   idt.data()};
-    kernel::cpu::load_interrupt_descriptor_table(idt_pointer);
-
-    auto const stored_gdt_pointer = kernel::cpu::store_interrupt_descriptor_table();
-    arch::exception_handling::assert(
-        idt_pointer == stored_gdt_pointer,
-        "[Interrupt Descriptor Table] Loaded IDTR value is not the same as the stored value.");
-  }
-}  // namespace teachos::arch::context_switching::interrupt_descriptor_table
diff --git a/arch/x86_64/pre/src/context_switching/interrupt_descriptor_table/interrupt_descriptor_table_pointer.cpp b/arch/x86_64/pre/src/context_switching/interrupt_descriptor_table/interrupt_descriptor_table_pointer.cpp
deleted file mode 100644
index 7bcbae6..0000000
--- a/arch/x86_64/pre/src/context_switching/interrupt_descriptor_table/interrupt_descriptor_table_pointer.cpp
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,13 +0,0 @@
-#include "arch/context_switching/interrupt_descriptor_table/interrupt_descriptor_table_pointer.hpp"
-
-namespace teachos::arch::context_switching::interrupt_descriptor_table
-{
-  interrupt_descriptor_table_pointer::interrupt_descriptor_table_pointer(uint16_t table_length,
-                                                                         gate_descriptor * address)
-      : table_length(table_length)
-      , address(address)
-  {
-    // Nothing to do.
-  }
-
-}  // namespace teachos::arch::context_switching::interrupt_descriptor_table
diff --git a/arch/x86_64/pre/src/context_switching/interrupt_descriptor_table/ist_offset.cpp b/arch/x86_64/pre/src/context_switching/interrupt_descriptor_table/ist_offset.cpp
deleted file mode 100644
index a70e75d..0000000
--- a/arch/x86_64/pre/src/context_switching/interrupt_descriptor_table/ist_offset.cpp
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,10 +0,0 @@
-#include "arch/context_switching/interrupt_descriptor_table/ist_offset.hpp"
-
-namespace teachos::arch::context_switching::interrupt_descriptor_table
-{
-  ist_offset::ist_offset(uint8_t index)
-      : _ist(index)
-  {
-    // Nothing to do.
-  }
-}  // namespace teachos::arch::context_switching::interrupt_descriptor_table
diff --git a/arch/x86_64/pre/src/context_switching/interrupt_descriptor_table/segment_selector.cpp b/arch/x86_64/pre/src/context_switching/interrupt_descriptor_table/segment_selector.cpp
deleted file mode 100644
index 25ba859..0000000
--- a/arch/x86_64/pre/src/context_switching/interrupt_descriptor_table/segment_selector.cpp
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,24 +0,0 @@
-#include "arch/context_switching/interrupt_descriptor_table/segment_selector.hpp"
-
-namespace teachos::arch::context_switching::interrupt_descriptor_table
-{
-  auto segment_selector::contains_flags(std::bitset<3U> other) const -> bool
-  {
-    return (std::bitset<3U>{_flags} & other) == other;
-  }
-
-  auto segment_selector::get_index() const -> uint16_t
-  {
-    return _index;
-  }
-
-  auto segment_selector::operator|=(std::bitset<3U> other) -> void
-  {
-    _flags |= other.to_ulong();
-  }
-
-  segment_selector::operator uint16_t() const
-  {
-    return *reinterpret_cast<uint16_t const *>(this);
-  }
-}  // namespace teachos::arch::context_switching::interrupt_descriptor_table
diff --git a/arch/x86_64/pre/src/interrupt_handling/generic_interrupt_handler.cpp b/arch/x86_64/pre/src/interrupt_handling/generic_interrupt_handler.cpp
deleted file mode 100644
index 9d061a8..0000000
--- a/arch/x86_64/pre/src/interrupt_handling/generic_interrupt_handler.cpp
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,13 +0,0 @@
-#include "arch/interrupt_handling/generic_interrupt_handler.hpp"
-
-#include "arch/video/vga/text.hpp"
-
-namespace teachos::arch::interrupt_handling
-{
-  auto generic_interrupt_handler(interrupt_frame * frame) -> void
-  {
-    (void)frame;
-    video::vga::text::write("An Interrupt occurred.", video::vga::text::common_attributes::green_on_black);
-    video::vga::text::newline();
-  }
-}  // namespace teachos::arch::interrupt_handling
diff --git a/arch/x86_64/pre/src/kernel/cpu/call.cpp b/arch/x86_64/pre/src/kernel/cpu/call.cpp
deleted file mode 100644
index 98fa248..0000000
--- a/arch/x86_64/pre/src/kernel/cpu/call.cpp
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,9 +0,0 @@
-#include "arch/kernel/cpu/call.hpp"
-
-namespace teachos::arch::kernel::cpu
-{
-  auto call(far_pointer pointer) -> void
-  {
-    asm volatile("rex64 lcall *%[input]" : /* no output from call */ : [input] "m"(pointer));
-  }
-}  // namespace teachos::arch::kernel::cpu
diff --git a/arch/x86_64/pre/src/kernel/cpu/idtr.cpp b/arch/x86_64/pre/src/kernel/cpu/idtr.cpp
deleted file mode 100644
index 7aa20c1..0000000
--- a/arch/x86_64/pre/src/kernel/cpu/idtr.cpp
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,18 +0,0 @@
-#include "arch/kernel/cpu/idtr.hpp"
-
-namespace teachos::arch::kernel::cpu
-{
-  auto store_interrupt_descriptor_table()
-      -> context_switching::interrupt_descriptor_table::interrupt_descriptor_table_pointer
-  {
-    context_switching::interrupt_descriptor_table::interrupt_descriptor_table_pointer current_value{};
-    asm("sidt %[output]" : [output] "=m"(current_value));
-    return current_value;
-  }
-
-  auto load_interrupt_descriptor_table(
-      context_switching::interrupt_descriptor_table::interrupt_descriptor_table_pointer const & idt_pointer) -> void
-  {
-    asm volatile("lidt %[input]" : /* no output from call */ : [input] "m"(idt_pointer));
-  }
-}  // namespace teachos::arch::kernel::cpu
diff --git a/arch/x86_64/pre/src/kernel/cpu/if.cpp b/arch/x86_64/pre/src/kernel/cpu/if.cpp
deleted file mode 100644
index 5d056fc..0000000
--- a/arch/x86_64/pre/src/kernel/cpu/if.cpp
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,13 +0,0 @@
-namespace teachos::arch::kernel::cpu
-{
-  auto set_interrupt_flag() -> void
-  {
-    asm volatile("sti");
-  }
-
-  auto clear_interrupt_flag() -> void
-  {
-    asm volatile("cli");
-  }
-
-}  // namespace teachos::arch::kernel::cpu
diff --git a/arch/x86_64/pre/src/kernel/cpu/tr.cpp b/arch/x86_64/pre/src/kernel/cpu/tr.cpp
deleted file mode 100644
index a435540..0000000
--- a/arch/x86_64/pre/src/kernel/cpu/tr.cpp
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,16 +0,0 @@
-#include "arch/kernel/cpu/tr.hpp"
-
-namespace teachos::arch::kernel::cpu
-{
-  auto store_task_register() -> uint16_t
-  {
-    uint16_t current_value{};
-    asm("str %[output]" : [output] "=r"(current_value));
-    return current_value;
-  }
-
-  auto load_task_register(uint16_t gdt_offset) -> void
-  {
-    asm volatile("ltr %[input]" : /* no output from call */ : [input] "m"(gdt_offset));
-  }
-}  // namespace teachos::arch::kernel::cpu
diff --git a/arch/x86_64/src/cpu/interrupts.cpp b/arch/x86_64/src/cpu/interrupts.cpp
index 048c461..907f289 100644
--- a/arch/x86_64/src/cpu/interrupts.cpp
+++ b/arch/x86_64/src/cpu/interrupts.cpp
@@ -1,6 +1,8 @@
 #include "arch/cpu/interrupts.hpp"
 
 #include "kapi/cpu.hpp"
+#include "kapi/interrupts.hpp"
+#include "kapi/memory.hpp"
 
 #include "arch/cpu/legacy_pic.hpp"
 #include "arch/cpu/segment_selector.hpp"
@@ -14,38 +16,113 @@ namespace arch::cpu
 
   namespace
   {
-    constexpr auto isr_number_page_fault = 0x0e;
-    constexpr auto isr_number_legacy_start = 0x20;
-    constexpr auto isr_number_legacy_end = 0x29;
-    constexpr auto isr_number_cascade_start = 0x2c;
-    constexpr auto isr_number_cascade_end = 0x2f;
+    enum struct exception
+    {
+      divide_error,
+      debug_exception,
+      non_maskable_interrupt,
+      breakpoint,
+      overflow,
+      bound_range_exceeded,
+      invalid_opcode,
+      device_not_available,
+      double_fault,
+      coprocessor_segment_overrun,
+      invalid_tss,
+      segment_not_present,
+      stack_segment_fault,
+      general_protection_fault,
+      page_fault,
+      x87_fpu_floating_point_error = 16,
+      alignment_check,
+      machine_check,
+      simd_floating_point_error,
+      virtualization_exception,
+      control_protection_exception,
+      hypervisor_injection_exception = 28,
+      vmm_communication_exception,
+      security_exception,
+    };
+
+    constexpr auto number_of_exception_vectors = 32u;
+
+    constexpr auto pic_master_irq_start = 0x20;
+    constexpr auto pic_master_irq_end = pic_master_irq_start + 8;
+    constexpr auto pic_slave_irq_start = pic_master_irq_end;
+
+    constexpr auto to_exception_type(exception e)
+    {
+      switch (e)
+      {
+        case exception::divide_error:
+        case exception::x87_fpu_floating_point_error:
+        case exception::simd_floating_point_error:
+          return kapi::cpu::exception::type::arithmetic_error;
+        case exception::breakpoint:
+          return kapi::cpu::exception::type::breakpoint;
+        case exception::invalid_opcode:
+          return kapi::cpu::exception::type::illegal_instruction;
+        case exception::stack_segment_fault:
+          return kapi::cpu::exception::type::memory_access_fault;
+        case exception::general_protection_fault:
+          return kapi::cpu::exception::type::privilege_violation;
+        case exception::page_fault:
+          return kapi::cpu::exception::type::page_fault;
+        case exception::alignment_check:
+          return kapi::cpu::exception::type::alignment_fault;
+        default:
+          return kapi::cpu::exception::type::unknown;
+      }
+    }
 
-    auto handle_page_fault(interrupt_frame * frame) -> void
+    constexpr auto has_error_code(exception e)
     {
-      auto fault_address = std::uintptr_t{};
-      asm volatile("mov %%cr2, %0" : "=r"(fault_address));
-
-      auto const present = (frame->interrupt.error_code & 0x1) != 0;
-      auto const write = (frame->interrupt.error_code & 0x2) != 0;
-      auto const user = (frame->interrupt.error_code & 0x4) != 0;
-
-      kstd::println(kstd::print_sink::stderr, "[x86_64:MMU] PAGE FAULT!");
-      kstd::println(kstd::print_sink::stderr, "\tFault address: {:#018x}", fault_address);
-      kstd::println(kstd::print_sink::stderr, "\tPresent: {}", present);
-      kstd::println(kstd::print_sink::stderr, "\tWrite: {}", write);
-      kstd::println(kstd::print_sink::stderr, "\tUser: {}", user);
-      kstd::println(kstd::print_sink::stderr, "\tRIP: {:#018x}", frame->cpu_saved.rip);
-      kstd::println(kstd::print_sink::stderr, "\tHalting the system now!");
-
-      kapi::cpu::halt();
+      switch (e)
+      {
+        case exception::double_fault:
+        case exception::invalid_tss:
+        case exception::segment_not_present:
+        case exception::stack_segment_fault:
+        case exception::general_protection_fault:
+        case exception::page_fault:
+        case exception::alignment_check:
+        case exception::control_protection_exception:
+        case exception::security_exception:
+          return true;
+        default:
+          return false;
+      }
     }
 
-    auto handle_legacy_interrupt(interrupt_frame * frame) -> void
+    auto dispatch_exception(interrupt_frame * frame) -> bool
     {
-      kstd::println("[x86_64:SYS] Ignoring 8259 legacy interrupt {:#04x}", frame->interrupt.number);
+      auto type = to_exception_type(static_cast<exception>(frame->interrupt.number));
+      auto fault_address = kapi::memory::linear_address{};
+      auto instruction_pointer = frame->cpu_saved.rip;
+
+      switch (type)
+      {
+        case kapi::cpu::exception::type::page_fault:
+        {
+          asm volatile("mov %%cr2, %0" : "=r"(fault_address));
+          auto present = (frame->interrupt.error_code & 0x1) != 0;
+          auto write = (frame->interrupt.error_code & 0x2) != 0;
+          auto user = (frame->interrupt.error_code & 0x4) != 0;
+
+          return kapi::cpu::dispatch({type, instruction_pointer, fault_address, present, write, user});
+        }
+        default:
+          return kapi::cpu::dispatch({type, instruction_pointer});
+      }
+    }
 
+    auto acknowledge_pic_interrupt(interrupt_frame * frame) -> void
+    {
+      if (frame->interrupt.number >= pic_slave_irq_start)
+      {
+        pic_slave_control_port::write(pic_end_of_interrupt);
+      }
       pic_master_control_port::write(pic_end_of_interrupt);
-      pic_slave_control_port::write(pic_end_of_interrupt);
     }
   }  // namespace
 
@@ -55,22 +132,34 @@ namespace arch::cpu
 
     auto interrupt_dispatch(interrupt_frame * frame) -> void
     {
-      if ((frame->interrupt.number >= isr_number_legacy_start && frame->interrupt.number <= isr_number_legacy_end) ||
-          (frame->interrupt.number >= isr_number_cascade_start && frame->interrupt.number <= isr_number_cascade_end))
+      auto [number, code] = frame->interrupt;
+
+      if (number < number_of_exception_vectors)
       {
-        handle_legacy_interrupt(frame);
-        return;
+        if (!dispatch_exception(frame))
+        {
+          if (has_error_code(static_cast<exception>(number)))
+          {
+            kstd::println(kstd::print_sink::stderr,
+                          "[x86_64:CPU] Unhandled exception number {:#04x} received with code {:#04x}", number, code);
+          }
+          else
+          {
+            kstd::println(kstd::print_sink::stderr, "[x86_64:CPU] Unhandled exception number {:#04x} received", number);
+          }
+        }
       }
-
-      switch (frame->interrupt.number)
+      else
       {
-        case isr_number_page_fault:
-          handle_page_fault(frame);
-          break;
-        default:
-          kstd::println(kstd::print_sink::stderr, "[x86_64:SYS] Unhandled interrupt {:#04x} received with code {:#04x}",
-                        frame->interrupt.number, frame->interrupt.error_code);
-          kapi::cpu::halt();
+        auto irq_number = number - number_of_exception_vectors;
+
+        if (kapi::interrupts::dispatch(irq_number) == kapi::interrupts::status::unhandled)
+        {
+          kstd::println(kstd::print_sink::stderr, "[x86_64:CPU] Unhandled interrupt {:#04x} (IRQ{})", number,
+                        irq_number);
+        }
+
+        acknowledge_pic_interrupt(frame);
       }
     }
   }
@@ -83,7 +172,7 @@ namespace arch::cpu
         .offset_low = static_cast<std::uint16_t>(isr_stub_table[i] & 0xffff), // NOLINT(readability-magic-numbers)
         .m_code_segment = segment_selector{0, false, 1},
         .interrupt_stack_table_selector = 0,
-        .gate_type = gate_type::interrupt_gate,
+        .gate_type = (i < 32 && i != 2) ? gate_type::trap_gate : gate_type::interrupt_gate,
         .descriptor_privilege_level = 0,
         .present = true,
         .offset_middle =
@@ -111,14 +200,4 @@ namespace arch::cpu
     return idtr;
   }
 
-  auto enable_interrupts() -> void
-  {
-    asm volatile("sti");
-  }
-
-  auto disable_interrupts() -> void
-  {
-    asm volatile("cli");
-  }
-
 }  // namespace arch::cpu
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/kapi/CMakeLists.txt b/kapi/CMakeLists.txt
index b239adb..c9aa23f 100644
--- a/kapi/CMakeLists.txt
+++ b/kapi/CMakeLists.txt
@@ -1,22 +1,13 @@
 add_library("kapi" INTERFACE)
 add_library("os::kapi" ALIAS "kapi")
 
+file(GLOB_RECURSE KAPI_HEADERS RELATIVE ${CMAKE_CURRENT_SOURCE_DIR} "include/**.hpp")
+
 target_sources("kapi" PUBLIC
     FILE_SET HEADERS
     BASE_DIRS "include"
     FILES
-    "include/kapi/boot_modules.hpp"
-    "include/kapi/boot.hpp"
-    "include/kapi/cio.hpp"
-    "include/kapi/boot_module/boot_module.hpp"
-    "include/kapi/boot_module/boot_module_registry.hpp"
-    "include/kapi/memory.hpp"
-    "include/kapi/memory/address.hpp"
-    "include/kapi/memory/frame_allocator.hpp"
-    "include/kapi/memory/frame.hpp"
-    "include/kapi/memory/page_mapper.hpp"
-    "include/kapi/memory/page.hpp"
-    "include/kapi/system.hpp"
+    ${KAPI_HEADERS}
 )
 
 target_include_directories("kapi" INTERFACE
diff --git a/kapi/include/kapi/cpu.hpp b/kapi/include/kapi/cpu.hpp
index 05b84b7..c6aa6ff 100644
--- a/kapi/include/kapi/cpu.hpp
+++ b/kapi/include/kapi/cpu.hpp
@@ -1,13 +1,117 @@
 #ifndef TEACHOS_KAPI_CPU_HPP
 #define TEACHOS_KAPI_CPU_HPP
 
+#include "kapi/memory.hpp"
+
+#include <kstd/format>
+
+#include <cstdint>
+
 namespace kapi::cpu
 {
+
+  //! An exception originating from the CPU directly.
+  //!
+  //! Exception generally model interrupts that are synchronous to the instruction stream. This means that they do not
+  //! originate from external hardware, but rather are a product of program execution.
+  struct exception
+  {
+    //! The type of the exception, which identifies the reason for it being raised.
+    enum class type : std::uint8_t
+    {
+      //! The reason for the exception is unknown or platform-specific
+      unknown,
+      //! A page fault occurred
+      page_fault,
+      //! A memory access (either in the data or instruction stream) violated it's alignment constraints.
+      alignment_fault,
+      //! A memory access (either in the data or instruction stream) violated it's permissions.
+      memory_access_fault,
+      //! An invalid instruction was present in the instruction stream.
+      illegal_instruction,
+      //! The preconditions for the execution of an instruction were not met.
+      privilege_violation,
+      //! An arithmetic error occurred.
+      arithmetic_error,
+      //! A breakpoint was hit in the instruction stream.
+      breakpoint,
+      //! The CPU is single-stepping through the instruction stream.
+      single_step,
+    };
+
+    //! The type of this exception.
+    type type{};
+
+    //! The value of the instruction pointer at the time this exception was raised.
+    kapi::memory::linear_address instruction_pointer{};
+
+    //! The memory address that caused this exception.
+    kapi::memory::linear_address access_address{};
+
+    //! Whether the page was present at the time of the exception.
+    bool is_present{};
+
+    //! Whether the exception was caused by a write access.
+    bool is_write_access{};
+
+    //! Whether the exception was caused by a user mode access.
+    bool is_user_mode{};
+  };
+
   //! @qualifier platform-defined
   //! Halt the CPU.
   //!
   //! This function terminates execution of the kernel.
   [[noreturn]] auto halt() -> void;
+
+  //! @qualifier platform-defined
+  //! Perform early CPU initialization.
+  //!
+  //! When this function returns, the CPU is in a state where interrupt could be enabled. This function must not enable
+  //! interrupts itself.
+  auto init() -> void;
+
+  //! @qualifier kernel-defined
+  //! Dispatch an exception to the appropriate handler.
+  //!
+  //! @param context The exception context.
+  //! @return Whether the exception was handled.
+  [[nodiscard]] auto dispatch(exception const & context) -> bool;
+
 }  // namespace kapi::cpu
 
+template<>
+struct kstd::formatter<enum kapi::cpu::exception::type>
+{
+  constexpr auto parse(kstd::format_parse_context & ctx) -> decltype(ctx.begin())
+  {
+    return ctx.begin();
+  }
+
+  constexpr auto format(enum kapi::cpu::exception::type type, kstd::format_context & ctx) const -> void
+  {
+    switch (type)
+    {
+      case kapi::cpu::exception::type::unknown:
+        return ctx.push("unknown");
+      case kapi::cpu::exception::type::page_fault:
+        return ctx.push("page fault");
+      case kapi::cpu::exception::type::alignment_fault:
+        return ctx.push("alignment fault");
+      case kapi::cpu::exception::type::memory_access_fault:
+        return ctx.push("memory access fault");
+      case kapi::cpu::exception::type::illegal_instruction:
+        return ctx.push("illegal instruction");
+      case kapi::cpu::exception::type::privilege_violation:
+        return ctx.push("privilege violation");
+      case kapi::cpu::exception::type::arithmetic_error:
+        return ctx.push("arithmetic error");
+      case kapi::cpu::exception::type::breakpoint:
+        return ctx.push("breakpoint");
+      case kapi::cpu::exception::type::single_step:
+        return ctx.push("single step");
+    }
+  }
+};
+
 #endif
diff --git a/kapi/include/kapi/interrupts.hpp b/kapi/include/kapi/interrupts.hpp
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f72ef8c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/kapi/include/kapi/interrupts.hpp
@@ -0,0 +1,61 @@
+#ifndef TEACHOS_KAPI_INTERRUPTS_HPP
+#define TEACHOS_KAPI_INTERRUPTS_HPP
+
+#include <cstdint>
+
+namespace kapi::interrupts
+{
+
+  enum class status : bool
+  {
+    unhandled,
+    handled,
+  };
+
+  //! The interface for all interrupt handlers.
+  struct handler
+  {
+    virtual ~handler() = default;
+
+    //! Handle an interrupt with the given IRQ number.
+    //
+    //! This function will be called by the kernel in an interrupt context. As such, the function should complete its
+    //! task quickly and must take care when acquiring globally shared locks.
+    //!
+    //! @param irq_number The identifier of the interrupt request that triggered the handler.
+    //! @return status::handled if the handler successfully handled the interrupt, status::unhandled otherwise.
+    virtual auto handle_interrupt(std::uint32_t irq_number) -> status = 0;
+  };
+
+  //! @qualifier platform-defined
+  //! Enable external interrupts.
+  auto enable() -> void;
+
+  //! @qualifier platform-defined
+  //! Disable external interrupts.
+  auto disable() -> void;
+
+  //! @qualifier kernel-defined
+  //! Register an interrupt handler for the given IRQ number.
+  //!
+  //! @param irq_number The IRQ number to register the handler for.
+  //! @param handler The interrupt handler to register.
+  auto register_handler(std::uint32_t irq_number, handler & handler) -> void;
+
+  //! @qualifier kernel-defined
+  //! Unregister a previously registered interrupt handler.
+  //!
+  //! @param irq_number The IRQ number to unregister the handler for.
+  //! @param handler The interrupt handler to unregister.
+  auto unregister_handler(std::uint32_t irq_number, handler & handler) -> void;
+
+  //! @qualifier kernel-defined
+  //! Dispatch an interrupt to all registered handlers.
+  //!
+  //! @param irq_number The IRQ number to dispatch.
+  //! @return status::handled if the interrupt was handled by at least one handler, status::unhandled otherwise.
+  auto dispatch(std::uint32_t irq_number) -> status;
+
+}  // namespace kapi::interrupts
+
+#endif
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/kernel/CMakeLists.txt b/kernel/CMakeLists.txt
index eb762ac..cadc373 100644
--- a/kernel/CMakeLists.txt
+++ b/kernel/CMakeLists.txt
@@ -2,6 +2,8 @@ add_executable("kernel"
     # Platform-independent KAPI implementation
     "kapi/boot_modules.cpp"
     "kapi/cio.cpp"
+    "kapi/cpu.cpp"
+    "kapi/interrupts.cpp"
     "kapi/memory.cpp"
     "kapi/system.cpp"
 
@@ -60,6 +62,15 @@ set_property(TARGET "kernel"
     "${KERNEL_LINKER_SCRIPT}"
 )
 
+file(GLOB_RECURSE KERNEL_HEADERS RELATIVE ${CMAKE_CURRENT_SOURCE_DIR} "include/**.hpp")
+
+target_sources("kernel" PUBLIC
+    FILE_SET HEADERS
+    BASE_DIRS "include"
+    FILES
+    ${KERNEL_HEADERS}
+)
+
 target_disassemble("kernel")
 target_extract_debug_symbols("kernel")
 target_strip("kernel")
diff --git a/kernel/kapi/cpu.cpp b/kernel/kapi/cpu.cpp
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..13de584
--- /dev/null
+++ b/kernel/kapi/cpu.cpp
@@ -0,0 +1,35 @@
+#include "kapi/cpu.hpp"
+
+#include "kapi/system.hpp"
+
+#include <kstd/print>
+
+namespace kapi::cpu
+{
+
+  namespace
+  {
+    auto handle_page_fault(kapi::cpu::exception const & context) -> bool
+    {
+      kstd::println(kstd::print_sink::stderr, "\tFault address: {:#018x}", context.access_address);
+      kstd::println(kstd::print_sink::stderr, "\tPresent: {}", context.is_present);
+      kstd::println(kstd::print_sink::stderr, "\tWrite: {}", context.is_write_access);
+      kstd::println(kstd::print_sink::stderr, "\tUser: {}", context.is_user_mode);
+
+      kapi::system::panic("Halting the system due to an unrecoverable page fault.");
+    }
+  }  // namespace
+
+  auto dispatch(exception const & context) -> bool
+  {
+    kstd::println(kstd::print_sink::stderr, "[OS:CPU] {} @ {:#018x}", context.type, context.instruction_pointer);
+    switch (context.type)
+    {
+      case kapi::cpu::exception::type::page_fault:
+        return handle_page_fault(context);
+      default:
+        return false;
+    }
+  }
+
+}  // namespace kapi::cpu
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/kernel/kapi/interrupts.cpp b/kernel/kapi/interrupts.cpp
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0e37bc3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/kernel/kapi/interrupts.cpp
@@ -0,0 +1,65 @@
+#include "kapi/interrupts.hpp"
+
+#include <kstd/flat_map>
+#include <kstd/print>
+#include <kstd/vector>
+
+#include <algorithm>
+#include <cstdint>
+
+namespace kapi::interrupts
+{
+
+  namespace
+  {
+    auto constinit handlers = kstd::flat_map<std::uint32_t, kstd::vector<handler *>>{};
+  }  // namespace
+
+  auto register_handler(std::uint32_t irq_number, handler & handler) -> void
+  {
+    if (handlers.contains(irq_number))
+    {
+      auto & handler_list = handlers.at(irq_number);
+      handler_list.push_back(&handler);
+    }
+    else
+    {
+      handlers.emplace(irq_number, kstd::vector{&handler});
+    }
+  }
+
+  auto unregister_handler(std::uint32_t irq_number, handler & handler) -> void
+  {
+    auto & handler_list = handlers.at(irq_number);
+    auto [first, last] = std::ranges::remove(handler_list, &handler);
+    handler_list.erase(first, last);
+  }
+
+  auto dispatch(std::uint32_t irq_number) -> status
+  {
+    if (!handlers.contains(irq_number))
+    {
+      kstd::println(kstd::print_sink::stderr, "[OS:interrupts] No handler for IRQ{}", irq_number);
+      return status::unhandled;
+    }
+
+    auto & handler_list = handlers.at(irq_number);
+
+    if (handler_list.empty())
+    {
+      kstd::println(kstd::print_sink::stderr, "[OS:interrupts] No handler for IRQ{}", irq_number);
+      return status::unhandled;
+    }
+
+    for (auto handler : handler_list)
+    {
+      if (handler && handler->handle_interrupt(irq_number) == status::handled)
+      {
+        return status::handled;
+      }
+    }
+
+    return status::unhandled;
+  }
+
+}  // namespace kapi::interrupts
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/kernel/src/main.cpp b/kernel/src/main.cpp
index 98c88f2..bb6d57d 100644
--- a/kernel/src/main.cpp
+++ b/kernel/src/main.cpp
@@ -1,5 +1,7 @@
 #include "kapi/boot_modules.hpp"
 #include "kapi/cio.hpp"
+#include "kapi/cpu.hpp"
+#include "kapi/interrupts.hpp"
 #include "kapi/memory.hpp"
 #include "kapi/system.hpp"
 
@@ -169,6 +171,9 @@ auto main() -> int
   kapi::cio::init();
   kstd::println("[OS] IO subsystem initialized.");
 
+  kapi::cpu::init();
+  kapi::interrupts::enable();
+
   kapi::memory::init();
   kernel::memory::init_heap(kapi::memory::heap_base);
   kstd::println("[OS] Memory subsystem initialized.");
diff --git a/libs/kstd/CMakeLists.txt b/libs/kstd/CMakeLists.txt
index d4f415f..7169aa8 100644
--- a/libs/kstd/CMakeLists.txt
+++ b/libs/kstd/CMakeLists.txt
@@ -44,6 +44,7 @@ endif()
 
 if(NOT CMAKE_CROSSCOMPILING)
     add_executable("kstd_tests"
+        "tests/src/flat_map.cpp"
         "tests/src/vector.cpp"
         "tests/src/os_panic.cpp"
         "tests/src/string.cpp"
diff --git a/libs/kstd/include/kstd/bits/flat_map.hpp b/libs/kstd/include/kstd/bits/flat_map.hpp
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..903841e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/libs/kstd/include/kstd/bits/flat_map.hpp
@@ -0,0 +1,82 @@
+#ifndef KSTD_BITS_FLAT_MAP_HPP
+#define KSTD_BITS_FLAT_MAP_HPP
+
+#include <cstddef>
+#include <iterator>
+#include <utility>
+
+namespace kstd::bits
+{
+
+  template<typename KeyType, typename MappedType, typename KeyIterator, typename MappedIterator>
+  struct flat_map_iterator
+  {
+    using iterator_category = std::random_access_iterator_tag;
+    using value_type = std::pair<KeyType, MappedType>;
+    using difference_type = std::ptrdiff_t;
+    using reference = std::pair<KeyType const &, MappedType &>;
+    using pointer = void;
+
+    constexpr flat_map_iterator(KeyIterator key_iterator, MappedIterator mapped_iterator)
+        : m_key_iterator{key_iterator}
+        , m_mapped_iterator{mapped_iterator}
+    {}
+
+    [[nodiscard]] auto key_iterator() const noexcept -> KeyIterator
+    {
+      return m_key_iterator;
+    }
+
+    [[nodiscard]] constexpr auto operator*() const noexcept -> reference
+    {
+      return {*m_key_iterator, *m_mapped_iterator};
+    }
+
+    constexpr auto operator++() noexcept -> flat_map_iterator &
+    {
+      ++m_key_iterator;
+      ++m_mapped_iterator;
+      return *this;
+    }
+
+    constexpr auto operator++(int) noexcept -> flat_map_iterator
+    {
+      auto copy = *this;
+      ++(*this);
+      return copy;
+    }
+
+    constexpr auto operator--() noexcept -> flat_map_iterator &
+    {
+      --m_key_iterator;
+      --m_mapped_iterator;
+      return *this;
+    }
+
+    constexpr auto operator--(int) noexcept -> flat_map_iterator
+    {
+      auto copy = *this;
+      --(*this);
+      return copy;
+    }
+
+    [[nodiscard]] constexpr auto operator+(difference_type offset) const noexcept -> flat_map_iterator
+    {
+      return {m_key_iterator + offset, m_mapped_iterator + offset};
+    }
+
+    [[nodiscard]] constexpr auto operator-(flat_map_iterator const & other) const noexcept -> difference_type
+    {
+      return m_key_iterator - other.m_key_iterator;
+    }
+
+    [[nodiscard]] constexpr auto operator<=>(flat_map_iterator const & other) const noexcept = default;
+
+  private:
+    KeyIterator m_key_iterator{};
+    MappedIterator m_mapped_iterator{};
+  };
+
+}  // namespace kstd::bits
+
+#endif
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/libs/kstd/include/kstd/flat_map b/libs/kstd/include/kstd/flat_map
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6ffbbcf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/libs/kstd/include/kstd/flat_map
@@ -0,0 +1,320 @@
+#ifndef KSTD_FLAT_MAP_HPP
+#define KSTD_FLAT_MAP_HPP
+
+#include <kstd/bits/flat_map.hpp>
+#include <kstd/os/error.hpp>
+#include <kstd/vector>
+
+#include <algorithm>
+#include <concepts>
+#include <cstddef>
+#include <functional>
+#include <iterator>
+#include <utility>
+
+namespace kstd
+{
+
+  template<typename KeyType, typename MappedType, typename KeyCompare = std::less<KeyType>,
+           typename KeyContainerType = kstd::vector<KeyType>, typename MappedContainerType = kstd::vector<MappedType>>
+  struct flat_map
+  {
+    using key_container_type = KeyContainerType;
+    using mapped_container_type = MappedContainerType;
+    using key_type = KeyType;
+    using mapped_type = MappedType;
+    using value_type = std::pair<key_type, mapped_type>;
+    using key_compare = KeyCompare;
+    using reference = std::pair<key_type const &, mapped_type &>;
+    using const_reference = std::pair<key_type const &, mapped_type const &>;
+    using size_type = std::size_t;
+    using difference_type = std::ptrdiff_t;
+    using iterator = bits::flat_map_iterator<KeyType, MappedType, typename key_container_type::iterator,
+                                             typename mapped_container_type::iterator>;
+    using const_iterator =
+        bits::flat_map_iterator<KeyType, MappedType const, typename key_container_type::const_iterator,
+                                typename mapped_container_type::const_iterator>;
+    using reverse_iterator = std::reverse_iterator<iterator>;
+    using const_reverse_iterator = std::reverse_iterator<const_iterator>;
+    using containers = struct
+    {
+      key_container_type keys;
+      mapped_container_type values;
+    };
+
+    //! Compare two object of type value_type.
+    struct value_compare
+    {
+      constexpr auto operator()(const_reference lhs, const_reference rhs) const -> bool
+      {
+        return lhs.first < rhs.first;
+      }
+    };
+
+    //! Construct an empty flat map.
+    constexpr flat_map()
+        : flat_map{key_compare{}}
+    {}
+
+    //! Construct an empty flat map using the given custom comparator.
+    //!
+    //! @param comparator The comparator to use for comparing keys.
+    constexpr explicit flat_map(key_compare const & comparator)
+        : m_containers{}
+        , m_comparator{comparator}
+    {}
+
+    //! Get a reference to the mapped value associated with the given key.
+    //!
+    //! @warning This function will panic if the key is not found.
+    //! @param key The key to look up.
+    //! @return A reference to the mapped value.
+    [[nodiscard]] constexpr auto at(key_type const & key) -> mapped_type &
+    {
+      auto found = std::ranges::lower_bound(m_containers.keys, key, m_comparator);
+      if (found != m_containers.keys.cend() && !m_comparator(key, *found) && !m_comparator(*found, key))
+      {
+        auto offset = std::distance(m_containers.keys.begin(), found);
+        return *(m_containers.values.begin() + offset);
+      }
+      os::panic("[kstd::flat_map] Key not found");
+    }
+
+    //! Get a reference to the mapped value associated with the given key.
+    //!
+    //! @warning This function will panic if the key is not found.
+    //! @param key The key to look up.
+    //! @return A const reference to the mapped value.
+    [[nodiscard]] constexpr auto at(key_type const & key) const -> mapped_type const &
+    {
+      auto found = std::ranges::lower_bound(m_containers.keys, key, m_comparator);
+      if (found != m_containers.keys.cend() && !m_comparator(key, *found) && !m_comparator(*found, key))
+      {
+        auto offset = std::distance(m_containers.keys.cbegin(), found);
+        return *(m_containers.values.cbegin() + offset);
+      }
+      os::panic("[kstd::flat_map] Key not found");
+    }
+
+    //! Get a reference to the mapped value associated with the given key.
+    //!
+    //! @note This overload only participates in overload resolution if the key compare type is transparent.
+    //! @warning This function will panic if the key is not found.
+    //! @param x The key to look up.
+    //! @return A reference to the mapped value.
+    template<typename K>
+      requires requires(K const & k, key_type const & l) { typename key_compare::is_transparent; }
+    [[nodiscard]] constexpr auto at(K const & x) -> mapped_type &
+    {
+      auto found = find(x);
+      if (found != end())
+      {
+        auto offset = std::distance(m_containers.keys.begin(), found.key_iterator());
+        return *(m_containers.values.begin() + offset);
+      }
+      os::panic("[kstd::flat_map] Key not found");
+    }
+
+    //! Get a reference to the mapped value associated with the given key.
+    //! @note This overload only participates in overload resolution if the key compare type is transparent.
+    //! @warning This function will panic if the key is not found.
+    //! @param x The key to look up.
+    //! @return A const reference to the mapped value.
+    template<typename K>
+      requires requires(K const & k, key_type const & l) { typename key_compare::is_transparent; }
+    [[nodiscard]] auto at(K const & x) const -> mapped_type const &
+    {
+      auto found = find(x);
+      if (found != end())
+      {
+        auto offset = std::distance(m_containers.keys.cbegin(), found.key_iterator());
+        return *(m_containers.values.cbegin() + offset);
+      }
+      os::panic("[kstd::flat_map] Key not found");
+    }
+
+    //! Get an iterator to the first element.
+    [[nodiscard]] auto begin() noexcept -> iterator
+    {
+      return iterator{m_containers.keys.begin(), m_containers.values.begin()};
+    }
+
+    //! Get an iterator to the first element.
+    [[nodiscard]] auto begin() const noexcept -> const_iterator
+    {
+      return const_iterator{m_containers.keys.cbegin(), m_containers.values.cbegin()};
+    }
+
+    //! Get an iterator to the first element.
+    [[nodiscard]] auto cbegin() const noexcept -> const_iterator
+    {
+      return const_iterator{m_containers.keys.cbegin(), m_containers.values.cbegin()};
+    }
+
+    //! Get an iterator to the element past the last element.
+    [[nodiscard]] auto end() noexcept -> iterator
+    {
+      return iterator{m_containers.keys.end(), m_containers.values.end()};
+    }
+
+    //! Get an iterator to the element past the last element.
+    [[nodiscard]] auto end() const noexcept -> const_iterator
+    {
+      return const_iterator{m_containers.keys.cend(), m_containers.values.cend()};
+    }
+
+    //! Get an iterator to the element past the last element.
+    [[nodiscard]] auto cend() const noexcept -> const_iterator
+    {
+      return const_iterator{m_containers.keys.cend(), m_containers.values.cend()};
+    }
+
+    //! Get an iterator to the first element.
+    [[nodiscard]] auto rbegin() noexcept -> reverse_iterator
+    {
+      return reverse_iterator{end()};
+    }
+
+    //! Get an iterator to the first element.
+    [[nodiscard]] auto rbegin() const noexcept -> const_reverse_iterator
+    {
+      return const_reverse_iterator{cend()};
+    }
+
+    //! Get an iterator to the first element.
+    [[nodiscard]] auto crbegin() const noexcept -> const_reverse_iterator
+    {
+      return const_reverse_iterator{cend()};
+    }
+
+    //! Get an iterator to the element past the last element.
+    [[nodiscard]] auto rend() noexcept -> reverse_iterator
+    {
+      return reverse_iterator{begin()};
+    }
+
+    //! Get an iterator to the element past the last element.
+    [[nodiscard]] auto rend() const noexcept -> const_reverse_iterator
+    {
+      return const_reverse_iterator{cbegin()};
+    }
+
+    //! Get an iterator to the element past the last element.
+    [[nodiscard]] auto crend() const noexcept -> const_reverse_iterator
+    {
+      return const_reverse_iterator{cbegin()};
+    }
+
+    //! Try to insert a new key-value pair into the map.
+    //!
+    //! @param args Arguments to use for constructing the key-value pair.
+    //! @return A pair of an iterator to the inserted element and a boolean indicating whether the insertion took place.
+    template<typename... Args>
+    auto emplace(Args &&... args) -> std::pair<iterator, bool>
+      requires std::constructible_from<value_type, Args...>
+    {
+      auto value = value_type{std::forward<Args>(args)...};
+      auto found = std::ranges::lower_bound(m_containers.keys, value.first, m_comparator);
+
+      if (found != m_containers.keys.cend() && !m_comparator(value.first, *found) && !m_comparator(*found, value.first))
+      {
+        auto offset = std::distance(m_containers.keys.begin(), found);
+        return {
+          iterator{m_containers.keys.begin() + offset, m_containers.values.begin() + offset},
+          false
+        };
+      }
+
+      auto offset = std::distance(m_containers.keys.begin(), found);
+      auto key_iterator = m_containers.keys.begin() + offset;
+      auto mapped_iterator = m_containers.values.begin() + offset;
+
+      auto inserted_key = m_containers.keys.insert(key_iterator, std::move(value.first));
+      auto inserted_mapped = m_containers.values.insert(mapped_iterator, std::move(value.second));
+
+      return {
+        iterator{inserted_key, inserted_mapped},
+        true
+      };
+    }
+
+    //! Find an element with an equivalent key.
+    //!
+    //! @param key The key to look up.
+    //! @return An iterator to the element with the equivalent key, or end() if no such element is found.
+    [[nodiscard]] auto find(key_type const & key) noexcept -> iterator
+    {
+      auto found = std::ranges::lower_bound(m_containers.keys, key, m_comparator);
+      if (found != m_containers.keys.cend() && !m_comparator(key, *found) && !m_comparator(*found, key))
+      {
+        auto offset = std::distance(m_containers.keys.begin(), found);
+        return iterator{m_containers.keys.begin() + offset, m_containers.values.begin() + offset};
+      }
+      return end();
+    }
+
+    //! Find an element with an equivalent key.
+    //!
+    //! @param key The key to look up.
+    //! @return An iterator to the element with the equivalent key, or end() if no such element is found.
+    [[nodiscard]] auto find(key_type const & key) const noexcept -> const_iterator
+    {
+      auto found = std::ranges::lower_bound(m_containers.keys, key, m_comparator);
+      if (found != m_containers.keys.cend() && !m_comparator(key, *found) && !m_comparator(*found, key))
+      {
+        auto offset = std::distance(m_containers.keys.cbegin(), found);
+        return const_iterator{m_containers.keys.cbegin() + offset, m_containers.values.cbegin() + offset};
+      }
+      return cend();
+    }
+
+    //! Find an element with an equivalent key.
+    //! @note This overload only participates in overload resolution if the key compare type is transparent.
+    //! @param x The key to look up.
+    //! @return An iterator to the element with the equivalent key, or end() if no such element is found.
+    template<typename K>
+      requires requires(K const & k, key_type const & l) { typename key_compare::is_transparent; }
+    [[nodiscard]] auto find(K const & x) noexcept -> iterator
+    {
+      auto found = std::ranges::lower_bound(m_containers.keys, x, m_comparator);
+      if (found != m_containers.keys.cend() && !m_comparator(x, *found) && !m_comparator(*found, x))
+      {
+        auto offset = std::distance(m_containers.keys.begin(), found);
+        return iterator{m_containers.keys.begin() + offset, m_containers.values.begin() + offset};
+      }
+      return end();
+    }
+
+    //! Find an element with an equivalent key.
+    //! @note This overload only participates in overload resolution if the key compare type is transparent.
+    //! @param x The key to look up.
+    //! @return An iterator to the element with the equivalent key, or end() if no such element is found.
+    template<typename K>
+      requires requires(K const & k, key_type const & l) { typename key_compare::is_transparent; }
+    [[nodiscard]] auto find(K const & x) const noexcept -> const_iterator
+    {
+      auto found = std::ranges::lower_bound(m_containers.keys, x, m_comparator);
+      if (found != m_containers.keys.cend() && !m_comparator(x, *found) && !m_comparator(*found, x))
+      {
+        auto offset = std::distance(m_containers.keys.cbegin(), found);
+        return const_iterator{m_containers.keys.cbegin() + offset, m_containers.values.cbegin() + offset};
+      }
+      return cend();
+    }
+
+    //! Check if the map contains the given key.
+    //!
+    //! @param key The key to check.
+    //! @return true iff. the key is found, false otherwise.
+    [[nodiscard]] constexpr auto contains(key_type const & key) const noexcept -> bool
+    {
+      return find(key) != cend();
+    }
+
+  private:
+    containers m_containers;
+    key_compare m_comparator;
+  };
+}  // namespace kstd
+
+#endif
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/libs/kstd/include/kstd/vector b/libs/kstd/include/kstd/vector
index 0d4aac8..9e41cb6 100644
--- a/libs/kstd/include/kstd/vector
+++ b/libs/kstd/include/kstd/vector
@@ -548,7 +548,6 @@ namespace kstd
       if (new_capacity > max_size())
       {
         kstd::os::panic("[kstd:vector] Tried to reserve more space than theoretically possible.");
-        return;
       }
 
       auto new_data = allocate_n(new_capacity);
@@ -690,6 +689,50 @@ namespace kstd
       return begin() + prefix_size;
     }
 
+    //! Erase an element at a given position.
+    //!
+    //! @note This function will panic if position == end()
+    //!
+    //! @param position An interator pointing to the element to delete
+    //! @return An iterator pointing to the element after the deleted element
+    constexpr auto erase(const_iterator position) -> iterator
+    {
+      if (position == end())
+      {
+        os::panic("[kstd:vector] Attempted to erase end()!");
+      }
+
+      auto prefix_size = std::ranges::distance(cbegin(), position);
+
+      std::ranges::move(begin() + prefix_size + 1, end(), begin() + prefix_size);
+      std::allocator_traits<allocator_type>::destroy(m_allocator, end() - 1);
+      --m_size;
+
+      return begin() + prefix_size;
+    }
+
+    //! Erase a range of elements from this vector.
+    //!
+    //! @param first The start of the range to erase.
+    //! @param last The end of the range to erase.
+    //! @return An iterator pointing to the element after the last deleted element.
+    constexpr auto erase(const_iterator first, const_iterator last) -> iterator
+    {
+      if (first == last)
+      {
+        return begin() + std::ranges::distance(cbegin(), first);
+      }
+
+      auto prefix_size = std::ranges::distance(cbegin(), first);
+      auto element_count = std::ranges::distance(first, last);
+
+      std::ranges::move(begin() + prefix_size + element_count, end(), begin() + prefix_size);
+      destroy_n(end() - element_count, element_count);
+      m_size -= element_count;
+
+      return begin() + prefix_size;
+    }
+
     //! Append a given element to this vector via copy construction.
     constexpr auto push_back(value_type const & value) -> void
     {
diff --git a/libs/kstd/tests/src/flat_map.cpp b/libs/kstd/tests/src/flat_map.cpp
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..cde136a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/libs/kstd/tests/src/flat_map.cpp
@@ -0,0 +1,288 @@
+#include <kstd/flat_map>
+#include <kstd/tests/os_panic.hpp>
+
+#include <catch2/catch_test_macros.hpp>
+
+#include <functional>
+
+SCENARIO("Flat Map initialization and construction", "[flat_map]")
+{
+  GIVEN("An empty context")
+  {
+    WHEN("constructing by default")
+    {
+      auto map = kstd::flat_map<int, int>{};
+
+      THEN("the Flat Map does not contain elements")
+      {
+        REQUIRE_FALSE(map.contains(1));
+      }
+    }
+  }
+}
+
+SCENARIO("Flat Map modifiers", "[flat_map]")
+{
+  GIVEN("An empty Flat Map")
+  {
+    auto map = kstd::flat_map<int, int>{};
+
+    WHEN("emplacing a new element")
+    {
+      auto [it, inserted] = map.emplace(1, 100);
+
+      THEN("the map contains the new element")
+      {
+        REQUIRE(inserted);
+        REQUIRE(map.contains(1));
+      }
+    }
+
+    WHEN("emplacing an existing element")
+    {
+      map.emplace(1, 100);
+      auto [it, inserted] = map.emplace(1, 200);
+
+      THEN("the map does not insert the duplicate")
+      {
+        REQUIRE_FALSE(inserted);
+        REQUIRE(map.contains(1));
+      }
+    }
+  }
+}
+
+SCENARIO("Flat Map element access", "[flat_map]")
+{
+  GIVEN("A populated Flat Map")
+  {
+    auto map = kstd::flat_map<int, int>{};
+    map.emplace(1, 10);
+    map.emplace(2, 20);
+    map.emplace(3, 30);
+
+    WHEN("accessing an existing element with at()")
+    {
+      auto & val = map.at(2);
+
+      THEN("it returns a reference to the mapped value")
+      {
+        REQUIRE(val == 20);
+      }
+
+      THEN("the mapped value can be modified")
+      {
+        val = 200;
+        REQUIRE(map.at(2) == 200);
+      }
+    }
+
+    WHEN("accessing a non-existent element with at()")
+    {
+      THEN("it panics")
+      {
+        REQUIRE_THROWS_AS(map.at(4), kstd::tests::os_panic);
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  GIVEN("A const populated Flat Map")
+  {
+    auto map_builder = kstd::flat_map<int, int>{};
+    map_builder.emplace(1, 10);
+    map_builder.emplace(2, 20);
+    auto const map = map_builder;
+
+    WHEN("accessing an existing element with const at()")
+    {
+      auto const & val = map.at(2);
+
+      THEN("it returns a const reference to the mapped value")
+      {
+        REQUIRE(val == 20);
+      }
+    }
+
+    WHEN("accessing a non-existent element with const at()")
+    {
+      THEN("it panics")
+      {
+        REQUIRE_THROWS_AS(map.at(4), kstd::tests::os_panic);
+      }
+    }
+  }
+}
+
+SCENARIO("Flat Map iterators", "[flat_map]")
+{
+  GIVEN("A populated Flat Map")
+  {
+    auto map = kstd::flat_map<int, int>{};
+    map.emplace(1, 10);
+    map.emplace(2, 20);
+    map.emplace(3, 30);
+
+    WHEN("using forward iterators")
+    {
+      THEN("they navigate the elements in the correct forward order")
+      {
+        auto it = map.begin();
+        REQUIRE(it != map.end());
+        REQUIRE((*it).first == 1);
+
+        ++it;
+        REQUIRE(it != map.end());
+        REQUIRE((*it).first == 2);
+
+        ++it;
+        REQUIRE(it != map.end());
+        REQUIRE((*it).first == 3);
+
+        ++it;
+        REQUIRE(it == map.end());
+      }
+
+      THEN("const forward iterators provide correct access")
+      {
+        auto it = map.cbegin();
+        REQUIRE(it != map.cend());
+        REQUIRE((*it).first == 1);
+
+        ++it;
+        REQUIRE(it != map.cend());
+        REQUIRE((*it).first == 2);
+
+        ++it;
+        REQUIRE(it != map.cend());
+        REQUIRE((*it).first == 3);
+
+        ++it;
+        REQUIRE(it == map.cend());
+      }
+    }
+
+    WHEN("using reverse iterators")
+    {
+      THEN("they navigate the elements in the correct reverse order")
+      {
+        auto it = map.rbegin();
+        REQUIRE(it != map.rend());
+        REQUIRE((*it).first == 3);
+
+        ++it;
+        REQUIRE(it != map.rend());
+        REQUIRE((*it).first == 2);
+
+        ++it;
+        REQUIRE(it != map.rend());
+        REQUIRE((*it).first == 1);
+
+        ++it;
+        REQUIRE(it == map.rend());
+      }
+
+      THEN("const reverse iterators provide correct access")
+      {
+        auto it = map.crbegin();
+        REQUIRE(it != map.crend());
+        REQUIRE((*it).first == 3);
+
+        ++it;
+        REQUIRE(it != map.crend());
+        REQUIRE((*it).first == 2);
+
+        ++it;
+        REQUIRE(it != map.crend());
+        REQUIRE((*it).first == 1);
+
+        ++it;
+        REQUIRE(it == map.crend());
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  GIVEN("an empty Flat Map")
+  {
+    auto map = kstd::flat_map<int, int>{};
+
+    WHEN("getting iterators")
+    {
+      THEN("begin() equals end() and cbegin() equals cend()")
+      {
+        REQUIRE(map.begin() == map.end());
+        REQUIRE(map.cbegin() == map.cend());
+      }
+
+      THEN("rbegin() equals rend() and crbegin() equals crend()")
+      {
+        REQUIRE(map.rbegin() == map.rend());
+        REQUIRE(map.crbegin() == map.crend());
+      }
+    }
+  }
+}
+
+SCENARIO("Flat Map heterogeneous element access", "[flat_map]")
+{
+  GIVEN("A populated Flat Map with a transparent comparator")
+  {
+    auto map = kstd::flat_map<int, int, std::less<void>>{};
+    map.emplace(1, 10);
+    map.emplace(2, 20);
+    map.emplace(3, 30);
+
+    WHEN("accessing an existing element with a different key type via at()")
+    {
+      long const key = 2L;
+      auto & val = map.at(key);
+
+      THEN("it returns a reference to the mapped value")
+      {
+        REQUIRE(val == 20);
+      }
+
+      THEN("the mapped value can be modified")
+      {
+        val = 200;
+        REQUIRE(map.at(2L) == 200);
+      }
+    }
+
+    WHEN("accessing a non-existent element with a different key type via at()")
+    {
+      long const key = 4L;
+      THEN("it panics")
+      {
+        REQUIRE_THROWS_AS(map.at(key), kstd::tests::os_panic);
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  GIVEN("A const populated Flat Map with a transparent comparator")
+  {
+    auto map_builder = kstd::flat_map<int, int, std::less<void>>{};
+    map_builder.emplace(1, 10);
+    map_builder.emplace(2, 20);
+    auto const map = map_builder;
+
+    WHEN("accessing an existing element with a different key type via const at()")
+    {
+      long const key = 2L;
+      auto const & val = map.at(key);
+
+      THEN("it returns a const reference to the mapped value")
+      {
+        REQUIRE(val == 20);
+      }
+    }
+
+    WHEN("accessing a non-existent element with a different key type via const at()")
+    {
+      long const key = 4L;
+      THEN("it panics")
+      {
+        REQUIRE_THROWS_AS(map.at(key), kstd::tests::os_panic);
+      }
+    }
+  }
+}
diff --git a/libs/kstd/tests/src/vector.cpp b/libs/kstd/tests/src/vector.cpp
index 0735c9a..b7971f4 100644
--- a/libs/kstd/tests/src/vector.cpp
+++ b/libs/kstd/tests/src/vector.cpp
@@ -475,6 +475,20 @@ SCENARIO("Vector modifiers", "[vector]")
         REQUIRE(it == v.begin());
       }
     }
+
+    WHEN("inserting an lvalue element")
+    {
+      auto const value = 42;
+      auto it = v.insert(v.cbegin(), value);
+
+      THEN("the size and capacity increase and the element is inserted")
+      {
+        REQUIRE(v.size() == 1);
+        REQUIRE(v.capacity() >= 1);
+        REQUIRE(v[0] == 42);
+        REQUIRE(it == v.begin());
+      }
+    }
   }
 
   GIVEN("A populated vector")
@@ -597,6 +611,22 @@ SCENARIO("Vector modifiers", "[vector]")
       }
     }
 
+    WHEN("inserting an lvalue at the end")
+    {
+      auto const value = 40;
+      auto it = v.insert(v.cend(), value);
+
+      THEN("the element is inserted at the back")
+      {
+        REQUIRE(v.size() == 4);
+        REQUIRE(v[0] == 10);
+        REQUIRE(v[1] == 20);
+        REQUIRE(v[2] == 30);
+        REQUIRE(v[3] == 40);
+        REQUIRE(it == v.begin() + 3);
+      }
+    }
+
     WHEN("inserting when capacity is sufficient")
     {
       v.reserve(10);
@@ -649,6 +679,114 @@ SCENARIO("Vector modifiers", "[vector]")
         REQUIRE(it == v.begin() + 1);
       }
     }
+
+    WHEN("inserting an rvalue reference to an existing element with reallocation")
+    {
+      v.shrink_to_fit();
+      REQUIRE(v.capacity() == v.size());
+      auto it = v.insert(v.cbegin() + 1, std::move(v[2]));
+
+      THEN("the element is correctly moved and inserted")
+      {
+        REQUIRE(v.size() == 4);
+        REQUIRE(v[0] == 10);
+        REQUIRE(v[1] == 30);
+        REQUIRE(v[2] == 20);
+        REQUIRE(v[3] == 30);
+        REQUIRE(it == v.begin() + 1);
+      }
+    }
+
+    WHEN("inserting an rvalue reference to an existing element without reallocation")
+    {
+      v.reserve(10);
+      REQUIRE(v.capacity() > v.size());
+      auto it = v.insert(v.cbegin() + 1, std::move(v[2]));
+
+      THEN("the element is correctly moved and inserted")
+      {
+        REQUIRE(v.size() == 4);
+        REQUIRE(v[0] == 10);
+        REQUIRE(v[1] == 30);
+        REQUIRE(v[2] == 20);
+        REQUIRE(v[3] == 30);
+        REQUIRE(it == v.begin() + 1);
+      }
+    }
+
+    WHEN("erasing the first element")
+    {
+      auto it = v.erase(v.cbegin());
+
+      THEN("the first element is removed and the size decreases")
+      {
+        REQUIRE(v.size() == 2);
+        REQUIRE(v[0] == 20);
+        REQUIRE(v[1] == 30);
+        REQUIRE(it == v.begin());
+      }
+    }
+
+    WHEN("erasing a middle element")
+    {
+      auto it = v.erase(v.cbegin() + 1);
+
+      THEN("the middle element is removed and the size decreases")
+      {
+        REQUIRE(v.size() == 2);
+        REQUIRE(v[0] == 10);
+        REQUIRE(v[1] == 30);
+        REQUIRE(it == v.begin() + 1);
+      }
+    }
+
+    WHEN("erasing the last element")
+    {
+      auto it = v.erase(v.cend() - 1);
+
+      THEN("the last element is removed and the size decreases")
+      {
+        REQUIRE(v.size() == 2);
+        REQUIRE(v[0] == 10);
+        REQUIRE(v[1] == 20);
+        REQUIRE(it == v.end());
+      }
+    }
+
+    WHEN("erasing the end() iterator")
+    {
+      THEN("a panic is triggered")
+      {
+        REQUIRE_THROWS_AS(v.erase(v.end()), kstd::tests::os_panic);
+      }
+    }
+
+    WHEN("erasing a range of elements")
+    {
+      auto it = v.erase(v.cbegin() + 1, v.cend() - 1);
+
+      THEN("the specified range is removed and the size decreases")
+      {
+        REQUIRE(v.size() == 2);
+        REQUIRE(v[0] == 10);
+        REQUIRE(v[1] == 30);
+        REQUIRE(it == v.begin() + 1);
+      }
+    }
+
+    WHEN("erasing an empty range")
+    {
+      auto it = v.erase(v.cbegin() + 1, v.cbegin() + 1);
+
+      THEN("the vector is unchanged")
+      {
+        REQUIRE(v.size() == 3);
+        REQUIRE(v[0] == 10);
+        REQUIRE(v[1] == 20);
+        REQUIRE(v[2] == 30);
+        REQUIRE(it == v.begin() + 1);
+      }
+    }
   }
 }
 
@@ -868,6 +1006,91 @@ SCENARIO("Vector modifier move semantics", "[vector]")
         REQUIRE(v[3].was_moved);
       }
     }
+
+    WHEN("erasing an element in the middle")
+    {
+      for (auto & elem : v)
+      {
+        elem.was_copied = false;
+        elem.was_moved = false;
+      }
+
+      auto it = v.erase(v.cbegin() + 1);
+
+      THEN("the subsequent elements are move-assigned leftwards")
+      {
+        REQUIRE(v.size() == 2);
+
+        REQUIRE(v[0].value == 10);
+        REQUIRE_FALSE(v[0].was_moved);
+        REQUIRE_FALSE(v[0].was_copied);
+
+        REQUIRE(v[1].value == 30);
+        REQUIRE(v[1].was_moved);
+        REQUIRE_FALSE(v[1].was_copied);
+
+        REQUIRE(it == v.begin() + 1);
+      }
+    }
+
+    WHEN("erasing the last element")
+    {
+      for (auto & elem : v)
+      {
+        elem.was_copied = false;
+        elem.was_moved = false;
+      }
+
+      auto it = v.erase(v.cend() - 1);
+
+      THEN("no elements are moved, just the last element destroyed")
+      {
+        REQUIRE(v.size() == 2);
+
+        REQUIRE(v[0].value == 10);
+        REQUIRE_FALSE(v[0].was_moved);
+        REQUIRE_FALSE(v[0].was_copied);
+
+        REQUIRE(v[1].value == 20);
+        REQUIRE_FALSE(v[1].was_moved);
+        REQUIRE_FALSE(v[1].was_copied);
+
+        REQUIRE(it == v.end());
+      }
+    }
+
+    WHEN("erasing a range of elements in the middle")
+    {
+      v.emplace_back(40);
+      v.emplace_back(50);
+
+      for (auto & elem : v)
+      {
+        elem.was_copied = false;
+        elem.was_moved = false;
+      }
+
+      auto it = v.erase(v.cbegin() + 1, v.cbegin() + 3);
+
+      THEN("the specified elements are destroyed and subsequent elements are move-assigned leftwards")
+      {
+        REQUIRE(v.size() == 3);
+
+        REQUIRE(v[0].value == 10);
+        REQUIRE_FALSE(v[0].was_moved);
+        REQUIRE_FALSE(v[0].was_copied);
+
+        REQUIRE(v[1].value == 40);
+        REQUIRE(v[1].was_moved);
+        REQUIRE_FALSE(v[1].was_copied);
+
+        REQUIRE(v[2].value == 50);
+        REQUIRE(v[2].was_moved);
+        REQUIRE_FALSE(v[2].was_copied);
+
+        REQUIRE(it == v.begin() + 1);
+      }
+    }
   }
 }